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Alcohol dependence-induced change in opioidergic system. In non-dependent organisms, alcohol-induced positive affective states mediated by the μ-opioid receptor precede compensatory negative affective states expressed through the κ-opioid receptor. Following chronic alcohol exposure, μ-opioid receptor signaling is attenuated and through multiple mechanisms, κ-opioid receptor signaling is increased to produce increased negative affective states. Adapted from Walker et al. (2012).
