Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics and Individual Measures for Cumulative Risk and Promotive Factors

Factor (number of items)	Wave 1 M (SD)	Wave 2 M (SD)	Wave 3 M (SD)	Wave 4 M (SD)	α	Sample item
Risk - Individual
Approval of violence to solve problems (or attitude about violence) (3 or 4 item)	1.63(.69)	1.56(.62)	1.46(.59)	1.43(.55)	.62-.74	Fighting is the best way to solve problems (4-pt Likert, 1 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly agree)
Observed violence (2)	2.22(1.18)	2.15(1.21)	1.92(1.10)	1.74(1.04)	.60-.80	Seen someone get shot, stabbed or beaten up (5-pt Likert, 1 = 0 times, 5 = 4+ times).
Victim of violence (3)	1.47(.63)	1.38(.57)	1.33(.55)	1.30(1.04)	.54-.55	Had someone physically assault or hurt you (5-pt Likert, 1 = 0 times, 5 = 4+ times)
Hopelessness about future (1)	1.59(1.03)	1.88(1.25)	1.77(1.20)	1.76(1.21)	NA	During the past week, have you felt hopeless about the future (5-Likert, 1 = Not at all, 5 = Extremely)
Nonviolent delinquency(10)	1.31(.49)	1.33(.52)	1.27(.48)	1.24(.46)	.83-.84	During the past 12 months, how often have you taken something a store without paying for it. (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = 0 times, 5 = 4+ times)
Weapon carrying (2)	1.29(.70)	1.33(.75)	1.33(.78)	1.30(.73)	.45-.59	During the past 12 months, how often have you carried a knife or razor? (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = 0 times, 5 = 4+ times)
Risk: Peer
Friends negative influence (19)	1.75(.52)	1.90(.57)	1.97(.66)	1.98(.67)	.88-.90	How many of your friends drink beer or wine at least once a month?
Friends aggressive or del behavior (5)	1.87(.76)	1.88(.75)	1.73(.68)	1.71(.70)	.72-75	How many of your friends get into fights? (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = none, 5 = all).
Friends who cut/suspended/drop out of school (3)	2.36(.85)	2.51(.87)	2.31(.83)	2.32(.85)	.62-.64	How many of your friends cut class – just don’t go? (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = none, 5 = all).
Risk: Family/Adults
Knife/gun carrying by adult you live with (2)	1.20(.54)	1.19(.52)	1.16(.47)	1.14(.47)	.34-.46	Does the most important person raising you carry a knife or razor? (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = never, 5 = very often).
Weapon carrying by non-family adults (2)	2.63(.55)	1.72(.96)	1.63(.84)	1.54(.76)	.74-.76	Not including parents or the adults you live with how many other adults do you know who carry a knife or razor? (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = none, 5 = all)
Promotive: Individual
Positive attitude about school (7)	2.79(.64)	2.82(.63)	2.93(.61)	2.91(.64)	.75-.77	Most mornings I look forward to going to school (4-pt Likert scale, 1 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly agree). (Hawkins, Catalano & Miller, 1992)
School relevance (3)	3.62(.80)	3.40(.87)	3.41(.91)	3.45(.91)	.52-.62	Last year, how often did you feel your schoolwork was useful? (5-pt Likert, 1 = almost always, 5 = rarely)
Future expectation re: college	4.25(1.06)	3.47(1.31)	3.53(1.31)	3.50(1.36)	NA	How likely is it that you will go to trade school or college? (5-pt Likert, 1 = not at all likely, 5 = very likely)
Self-acceptance (4)	4.46(.73)	4.42(.74)	4.52(.66)	4.45(.72)	.59-.67	I have always felt that I could make of my life pretty much what I wanted to make of it. (5-pt Likert, 1 = not true, 5 = very true) (Stein, J.A., Newcomb, M.D., & Bentler, P.M., 1986)
Promotive: Peers
Friends support (5)	3.14(.95)	3.38(.95)	3.34(.93)	3.30(.97)	.54-.87	I rely on my friends for emotional support. (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = none, 5 = all). (Procidano, M.E. & Heller, K., 1983)
Friends positive influences (5)	1.75(.52)	2.58(.76)	2.54(.75)	2.54(.78)	.64-.73	How many of your friends plan to go to college?
Friend’s participation in positive activities (3)	2.40(.74)	2.38(.77)	2.35(.79)	2.36(.81)	.41-.65	How many of your friends take part in school clubs or athletics? (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = none, 5 = all).
Promotive: Family
Parental support (6)	3.90(1.02)	4.12(.85)	4.20(.85)	4.12(.87)	.87-.90	My mother/father is good at helping me solve problems. (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = not ture, 5 = very true). (Procidano, M.E. & Heller, K., 1983)
Family participation in recreational or fun events (2-4)	2.80(.69)	2.23(.75)	2.21(.77)	2.13(.73)	.71-.89	We go to movies, sports events, or do other fun activities together as a family. (4-pt Likert scale, 1 = hardly ever, 4 = often). (Moos, R.H. & Moos, D.S., 1981)