Table 1.
Descriptive Statistics and Individual Measures for Cumulative Risk and Promotive Factors
Factor (number of items) | Wave 1 M (SD) |
Wave 2 M (SD) |
Wave 3 M (SD) |
Wave 4 M (SD) |
α | Sample item |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Risk - Individual | ||||||
Approval of violence to solve
problems (or attitude about violence) (3 or 4 item) |
1.63(.69) | 1.56(.62) | 1.46(.59) | 1.43(.55) | .62-.74 | Fighting is the best way to solve problems (4-pt Likert, 1 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly agree) |
Observed violence (2) | 2.22(1.18) | 2.15(1.21) | 1.92(1.10) | 1.74(1.04) | .60-.80 | Seen someone get shot, stabbed or beaten up (5-pt Likert, 1 = 0 times, 5 = 4+ times). |
Victim of violence (3) | 1.47(.63) | 1.38(.57) | 1.33(.55) | 1.30(1.04) | .54-.55 | Had someone physically assault or hurt you (5-pt Likert, 1 = 0 times, 5 = 4+ times) |
Hopelessness about future (1) | 1.59(1.03) | 1.88(1.25) | 1.77(1.20) | 1.76(1.21) | NA | During the past week, have you felt hopeless about the future (5-Likert, 1 = Not at all, 5 = Extremely) |
Nonviolent delinquency(10) | 1.31(.49) | 1.33(.52) | 1.27(.48) | 1.24(.46) | .83-.84 | During the past 12 months, how often have you taken something a store without paying for it. (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = 0 times, 5 = 4+ times) |
Weapon carrying (2) | 1.29(.70) | 1.33(.75) | 1.33(.78) | 1.30(.73) | .45-.59 | During the past 12 months, how often have you carried a knife or razor? (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = 0 times, 5 = 4+ times) |
Risk: Peer | ||||||
Friends negative influence (19) | 1.75(.52) | 1.90(.57) | 1.97(.66) | 1.98(.67) | .88-.90 | How many of your friends drink beer or wine at least once a month? |
Friends aggressive or del behavior
(5) |
1.87(.76) | 1.88(.75) | 1.73(.68) | 1.71(.70) | .72-75 | How many of your friends get into fights? (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = none, 5 = all). |
Friends who cut/suspended/drop
out of school (3) |
2.36(.85) | 2.51(.87) | 2.31(.83) | 2.32(.85) | .62-.64 | How many of your friends cut class – just don’t go? (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = none, 5 = all). |
Risk: Family/Adults | ||||||
Knife/gun carrying by adult you
live with (2) |
1.20(.54) | 1.19(.52) | 1.16(.47) | 1.14(.47) | .34-.46 | Does the most important person raising you carry a knife or razor? (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = never, 5 = very often). |
Weapon carrying by non-family
adults (2) |
2.63(.55) | 1.72(.96) | 1.63(.84) | 1.54(.76) | .74-.76 | Not including parents or the adults you live with how many other adults do you know who carry a knife or razor? (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = none, 5 = all) |
Promotive: Individual | ||||||
Positive attitude about school (7) | 2.79(.64) | 2.82(.63) | 2.93(.61) | 2.91(.64) | .75-.77 | Most mornings I look forward to going to school (4-pt Likert scale, 1 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly agree). (Hawkins, Catalano & Miller, 1992) |
School relevance (3) | 3.62(.80) | 3.40(.87) | 3.41(.91) | 3.45(.91) | .52-.62 | Last year, how often did you feel your schoolwork was useful? (5-pt Likert, 1 = almost always, 5 = rarely) |
Future expectation re: college | 4.25(1.06) | 3.47(1.31) | 3.53(1.31) | 3.50(1.36) | NA | How likely is it that you will go to trade school or college? (5-pt Likert, 1 = not at all likely, 5 = very likely) |
Self-acceptance (4) | 4.46(.73) | 4.42(.74) | 4.52(.66) | 4.45(.72) | .59-.67 | I have always felt that I could make of my life pretty much what I wanted to make of it. (5-pt Likert, 1 = not true, 5 = very true) (Stein, J.A., Newcomb, M.D., & Bentler, P.M., 1986) |
Promotive: Peers | ||||||
Friends support (5) | 3.14(.95) | 3.38(.95) | 3.34(.93) | 3.30(.97) | .54-.87 | I rely on my friends for emotional support. (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = none, 5 = all). (Procidano, M.E. & Heller, K., 1983) |
Friends positive influences (5) | 1.75(.52) | 2.58(.76) | 2.54(.75) | 2.54(.78) | .64-.73 | How many of your friends plan to go to college? |
Friend’s participation in positive
activities (3) |
2.40(.74) | 2.38(.77) | 2.35(.79) | 2.36(.81) | .41-.65 | How many of your friends take part in school clubs or athletics? (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = none, 5 = all). |
Promotive: Family | ||||||
Parental support (6) | 3.90(1.02) | 4.12(.85) | 4.20(.85) | 4.12(.87) | .87-.90 | My mother/father is good at helping me solve problems. (5-pt Likert scale, 1 = not ture, 5 = very true). (Procidano, M.E. & Heller, K., 1983) |
Family participation in
recreational or fun events (2-4) |
2.80(.69) | 2.23(.75) | 2.21(.77) | 2.13(.73) | .71-.89 | We go to movies, sports events, or do other fun activities together as a family. (4-pt Likert scale, 1 = hardly ever, 4 = often). (Moos, R.H. & Moos, D.S., 1981) |