Table 4.

Characteristics of Included Studies: Beliefs about, and CAM Practices for Smoking and Lung Cancer

Author, Year	Design	Population	Results	Comments
1. Ahijevych, 1993 [58]	Survey, correlational	187 Black women were recruited from health clinics and community sites in a metropolitan area of Ohio	Smoking to cope predicted nicotine dependence
2. Allen, 2010 [65]	Qualitative; focus groups followed by a descriptive survey	16 subjects, all Black, were recruited by advertising in hospital and medical waiting rooms in South Los Angeles, California. They provided data for a phone survey that was administered to 720 Black adult smokers, identified by census tracks as living in Los Angeles County	Menthol cigarette smokers believed that menthol had medicinal effects, including asthma symptom relief and treatment of fevers, sore throats and congestion Menthol cigarette smokers believed that menthol cigarettes had less nicotine and fewer added chemicals
3. Brownson, 1992 [55]	Survey, correlational	2092 adults in St. Louis and Kansas City, Missouri randomly selected from 60 census tracts in by random digit dialing; 75% Black	Compared to Whites, Black subjects were less likely to believe smoking is addictive and that smoking is harmful to health
4. Cykert, 2003 [66]	Survey	181 adults, without lung cancer, were recruited from medical clinics and community sites in Florida and North Carolina, 38% Black	Compared to Whites, Black subjects were less likely to opt for resection if they distrusted the diagnosis and believed in alternative cures
5. Finney Rutten, 2008 [68]	Secondary analysis	6149 adults enrolled in the National Cancer Institute’s Health Information National Trends Survey, obtained via national random digit dialing; 11% Black	Compared to Whites, Black were more likely to believe that exercise or vitamins could counteract the effects of smoking
6. George, 2010 [53]	Qualitative, focus groups	21 participants (11 with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and 10 with lung cancer) recruited from the Veterans Affairs system in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; 43% Black	Blacks were more likely to doubt that lung cancer resection surgery was effective or indicated Black participants believed that surgeons performed unnecessary surgery for monetary gain or to acquire technical skill Black subjects preferred CAM as a treatment for lung cancer Both Black and White subjects believed that exposure to air during surgery could cause tumor spread Both Black and White subjects were skeptical that smoking caused lung cancer
7. Lathan, 2006 [15]	Cohort; correlational	14,224 Medicare-eligible patients with non-metastatic lung cancer had their tumor registry and claims data analyzed from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results program between 1991 to 2001; 8% Black	Black patients obtain surgery for lung cancer less often than whites, even when they have access to care
8. Latham, 2010 [52]	Survey, correlational	1872 respondents to a national random digit dialing survey answering questions about lung cancer; 8% Black	Compared to Whites, Blacks were less likely to believe that lung cancer was caused by a lifestyle behavior
9. Manfredi, 1992 [56]	Qualitative; survey	246 Black residents of subsidized public housing in Chicago, Illinois and 117 Black adults and 496 Whites living in non-public housing in metropolitan Chicago	Black subjects, regardless of place of residence, were more likely than Whites to believe the risk of lung cancer is the same for smokers and nonsmokers
10. Margolis, 2003 [16]	Cross-sectional survey, correlational	626 patients recruited from outpatient clinics and medical practices at the Philadelphia, Veterans Affairs Medical Centers in, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Los Angeles, California; and the Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina; 61% Black	37% of subjects believed that exposing the lungs to air during surgery for lung cancer causes tumor spread; 61% of Blacks thought the belief was true compared to 29% of Whites 5% of Whites versus 19% of Blacks would oppose surgery on the basis of the belief 5% of Whites versus 14% Blacks would not believe their doctor on this issue
11. Pletch, 2003 [59]	Qualitative, focus groups using naturalistic inquiry approach	15 Black pregnant women recruited from a home visiting program in Milwaukee, Wisconsin	Subjects reported using smoking to manage stress
12. Powe, 2007 [60]	Survey, correlational	438 students enrolled in historically Black colleges	Male subjects were more likely to attribute emotional benefits to smoking compared to females
13. Price, 1994 [67]	Survey, correlational	500 residents of the state of Ohio randomly selected from a list of individuals making less than $18,00 annually who had a telephone and completed the survey; 15% Black	39% of respondents thought that the tumor exposure to air during surgery would cause the disease to spread	Results not reported by race-ethnicity
14. Reimer, 2010 [57]	Survey; correlational	6369 subjects recruited in a national random digit dialing survey; 17% Black	Black smokers were more likely to endorse false beliefs about smoking Blacks were more likely to believe that the effects of smoking could be undone by exercise or taking vitamins
15. Richter, 200862	Qualitative; focus groups	54 Black smokers obtained from a database in Atlanta, Georgia	Subjects described menthol cigarettes as refreshing Subjects attributed greater health problems with smoking non-menthol cigarettes
16. Shervington, 1994 [61]	Qualitative; focus groups	42 Black women in New Orleans, Louisiana	Subjects reported using smoking to manage stress
17. Unger, 2010 [63]	Qualitative, individual interviews; correlational	720 Black smokers recruited from community sites in Los Angeles, California	Menthol smokers were more likely to characterize menthol cigarettes are having more medicinal effects and less harmful effects than those who smoked non-menthol cigarettes
18. Wackowski, 2010 [64]	Survey; correlational	3062 young adults, smokers and recent quitters recruited by state-wide random digit dialing in New Jersey; 22% of current smokers were Black	Blacks believed that smoking menthol cigarettes was more risky than regular cigarettes
19. Wilkenson, 2009 [54]	Cross-sectional survey, correlational	2074 smoking and non-smoking subjects enrolled in an epidemiological case-control study in Houston, Texas; 14% Black and 8% Hispanic	Minorities were more likely to believe that air pollution causes more lung cancers than smoking	After controlling for socioeconomic status, the racial/ethnic-based differences in cancer knowledge disappeared