Table 1.
Conceptualizations of urban systems differ between organismal and ecosystem approaches to urban studies
| Organismal perspective | Ecosystem perspective | |
|---|---|---|
| Scientific foundation | Biology | Ecosystem ecology |
| Disciplinary focus | Life processes | Abiotic/biotic interactions |
| Orientation | Inward | Internal processes, external linkages |
| Metabolism meaning | Food/waste | Energy processing, production/respiration (C balance) |
| Metabolic units | Volume | Energy or carbon (or other materials) |
| Movement | Input–output | Feedbacks |
| Flows | Throughput | Structure–function linkages |
| System regulation | Homeostasis | Homeorhesis |
| Stability | Resistance | Resilience |
| Time | Climax succession | Disturbance dynamics |
| Structure | Morphostatic | Multiple stable states |
| Space | Uniformity | Fine-scale spatial heterogeneity (patch dynamics and gradients) |
| Agency | Single actor | Social, biological, and physical entities |
| Consumption | Heterotrophy | Internal transformations and teleconnections |
| Scope | Black box | Subsystems |
| Environmental context of city | Separate but connected, hinterland | Integrated social–biological–physical system |