Fig. 1.

a The WCS+MFR model: whole cervical spine (WCS) with muscle force replication (MFR). Anterior and posterior MFR cables originated from the occipital mount and passed along the anterior and posterior aspects of the WCS, respectively. The lateral MFR cables originated at C0, C2, C4 and C6. The other ends of all cables were attached to the sled via tension springs. The C0–C2 flexion limiter was a wire connecting the posterior base of the occiput to the C2 spinous process. Coordinate system h–v was fixed to the ground and z–y was fixed to the sled; b photograph of the WCS+MFR model ready for whiplash simulation