Table 2.
Maternal, socioeconomic and child risk factors for time to stunting
| N1 | Events | Univariate | Multivariate | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HR (95% CI)2 | p | HR (95% CI)2,3 | p | |||
|
Maternal Characteristics
| ||||||
| Age at delivery (years) | ||||||
| <20 | 72 | 24 | 1.00 | 0.12 | ||
| 20–24 | 498 | 162 | 1.01 (0.66, 1.54) | |||
| ≥ 25 | 1477 | 453 | 0.87 (0.58, 1.31) | |||
| Marital status | ||||||
| Single/Widowed/Divorced/Other | 280 | 96 | 1.00 | 0.17 | ||
| Married | 1831 | 564 | 0.86 (0.69, 1.07) | |||
| Number of prior pregnancies | ||||||
| 0 | 490 | 131 | 1.00 | 0.61 | ||
| 1–3 | 1460 | 486 | 1.21 (1.00, 1.47) | |||
| ≥ 4 | 162 | 41 | 0.90 (0.63, 1.27) | |||
| Formal education (years) | ||||||
| 0 | 139 | 53 | 1.00 | <0.0001 | 1.00 | 0.04 |
| 1–7 | 1521 | 509 | 0.92 (0.69, 1.22) | 1.01 (0.75, 1.34) | ||
| ≥ 8 | 455 | 98 | 0.55 (0.40, 0.77) | 0.77 (0.54, 1.08) | ||
| Occupation | ||||||
| Housewife without income | 1377 | 444 | 1.00 | |||
| Housewife with income | 175 | 54 | 0.90 (0.68, 1.20) | 0.31 | ||
| Business woman | 118 | 28 | 0.72 (0.49, 1.05) | |||
| Other | 388 | 121 | 0.94 (0.77, 1.15) | |||
| Mid-Upper Arm Circumference during pregnancy (cm) | ||||||
| < 22.0 | 135 | 53 | 1.00 | 0.06 | 1.00 | 0.72 |
| ≥ 22.0 | 1976 | 606 | 0.76 (0.58, 1.01) | 0.95 (0.71, 1.26) | ||
| Height (cm) | ||||||
| < 155.0 | 1027 | 410 | 1.00 | <0.0001 | 1.00 | <0.0001 |
| ≥ 155.0 | 1107 | 255 | 0.51 (0.43, 0.59) | 0.52 (0.45, 0.61) | ||
| WHO HIV disease stage | ||||||
| 1 | 947 | 288 | 1.00 | 0.41 | ||
| 2 | 195 | 65 | 1.15 (0.88, 1.50) | |||
| ≥ 3 | 152 | 49 | 1.08 (0.80, 1.47) | |||
| Received ARVs during pregnancy4 | ||||||
| No | 1549 | 511 | 1.00 | 0.46 | ||
| Yes | 376 | 115 | 0.93 (0.76, 1.14) | |||
| Vital status5 | ||||||
| Alive | 30914 | 665 | 1.00 | 0.44 | ||
| Dead | 126 | 1 | 0.44 (0.06, 3.11) | |||
|
| ||||||
|
Socioeconomic Characteristics
| ||||||
| Household food expenditure (TShs/person/day) | ||||||
| < 500 | 276 | 109 | 1.00 | 0.005 | 1.00 | 0.08 |
| ≥ 500 | 1725 | 516 | 0.74 (0.60, 0.91) | 0.32 (0.67, 1.02) | ||
| Household possessions6 | ||||||
| 0 | 292 | 117 | 1.00 | <0.0001 | 1.00 | 0.002 |
| 1–2 | 977 | 327 | 0.82 (0.66, 1.01) | 0.91 (0.73, 1.13) | ||
| 3–4 | 843 | 215 | 0.59 (0.47, 0.73) | 0.71 (0.56, 0.90) | ||
|
| ||||||
|
Child Characteristics
| ||||||
| Sex | ||||||
| Female | 987 | 284 | 1.00 | 0.02 | 1.00 | 0.002 |
| Male | 1148 | 382 | 1.20 (1.03, 1.40) | 1.28 (1.09, 1.49) | ||
| Birth weight (g) | ||||||
| ≥ 2,500 | 1988 | 598 | 1.00 | <0.0001 | 1.00 | <0.0001 |
| < 2,500 | 71 | 40 | 2.76 (2.00, 3.80) | 2.50 (1.80, 3.47) | ||
| Gestational age at birth (weeks) | ||||||
| ≥ 37 | 1830 | 556 | 1.00 | 0.03 | 1.00 | 0.15 |
| < 37 | 272 | 98 | 1.26 (1.02, 1.56) | 1.18 (0.94, 1.46) | ||
| Place of birth | ||||||
| Home | 39 | 13 | 1.00 | 0.39 | ||
| Hospital/clinic | 2010 | 625 | 0.79 (0.45, 1.36) | |||
| Apgar score at 5 min | ||||||
| > 7 | 1848 | 561 | 1.00 | 0.02 | 1.00 | 0.03 |
| ≤ 7 | 74 | 32 | 1.52 (1.07, 2.17) | 1.49 (1.04, 2.13) | ||
| Child fed colostrum | ||||||
| Yes | 1680 | 524 | 1.00 | 0.99 | ||
| No | 173 | 53 | 1.00 (0.76, 1.33) | |||
| Child received BCG immunization as a newborn | ||||||
| Yes | 1682 | 517 | 1.00 | 0.18 | ||
| No | 171 | 60 | 1.20 (0.92, 1.57) | |||
| Exclusively breastfed5 | ||||||
| No | 25,054 | 477 | 1.00 | 0.01 | 1.00 | 0.05 |
| Yes | 5,866 | 187 | 1.39 (1.07, 1.80) | 1.29 (1.00, 1.67) | ||
| Anemia (Hb <11 g/dL)5 | ||||||
| No | 5,789 | 118 | 1.00 | 0.12 | ||
| Yes | 23,970 | 523 | 1.18 (0.96, 1.44) | |||
| Cotrimoxazole consumption last month5 | ||||||
| 0 | 1,848 | 47 | 1.00 | 0.15 | ||
| 1–20 times | 3,235 | 74 | 0.94 (0.64, 1.37) | |||
| ≥ 21 times | 16,296 | 325 | 0.82 (0.60, 1.14) | |||
| HIV status5 | ||||||
| Negative | 28,533 | 537 | 1.00 | <0.0001 | 1.00 | <0.0001 |
| Positive | 2,472 | 126 | 2.65 (2.19, 3.22) | 2.79 (2.29, 3.40) | ||
| Cumulative morbidity episodes5,7 | ||||||
| Diarrhea | ||||||
| 0 | 23,200 | 519 | 1.00 | 0.53 | ||
| 1–2 | 6,930 | 128 | 1.01 (0.82, 1.25) | |||
| ≥ 3 | 909 | 18 | 1.26 (0.78, 2.02) | |||
| Fever | ||||||
| 0 | 17,837 | 422 | 1.00 | |||
| 1–2 | 9,991 | 182 | 0.94 (0.77, 1.15) | 0.83 | ||
| 3–4 | 2,370 | 49 | 1.17 (0.84, 1.62) | |||
| ≥ 5 | 840 | 13 | 0.95 (0.53, 1.70) | |||
| Common cold | ||||||
| 0 | 9,436 | 260 | 1.00 | |||
| 1–2 | 11,646 | 220 | 0.81 (0.66, 0.98) | 0.95 | ||
| 3–4 | 5,599 | 99 | 0.85 (0.64, 1.13) | |||
| ≥ 5 | 4,358 | 87 | 1.05 (0.77, 1.44) | |||
| Vomiting | ||||||
| 0 | 27,975 | 605 | 1.00 | 0.58 | ||
| 1 | 2,493 | 52 | 1.17 (0.87, 1.57) | |||
| ≥ 2 | 571 | 9 | 0.92 (0.47, 1.79) | |||
| Refusal to eat, drink or breastfeed | ||||||
| 0 | 26,962 | 603 | 1.00 | 0.22 | ||
| 1 | 3,025 | 47 | 0.83 (0.611.12) | |||
| ≥ 2 | 1,052 | 16 | 0.84 (0.51, 1.40) | |||
| Cough alone | ||||||
| 0 | 10,660 | 292 | 1.00 | |||
| 1–2 | 9,912 | 178 | 0.77 (0.62, 0.96) | 0.24 | ||
| 3–4 | 5,154 | 113 | 1.00 (0.75, 1.33) | |||
| ≥ 5 | 5,312 | 83 | 0.77 (0.55, 1.06) | |||
| Cough and fever | ||||||
| 0 | 21,808 | 496 | 1.00 | 0.63 | ||
| 1–2 | 7,845 | 140 | 0.96 (0.78, 1.18) | |||
| ≥ 3 | 1,386 | 30 | 1.28 (0.87, 1.89) | |||
| Cough plus difficulty breathing, rapid respiratory rate or refusal to eat | ||||||
| 0 | 26,916 | 582 | 1.00 | 0.27 | ||
| ≥ 1 | 4,123 | 84 | 1.14 (0.90, 1.46) | |||
1
N represents the number of children for time-fixed predictors, and number of person-months for time-varying predictors
2
Hazard Ratios (HR) and 95% Confidence Intervals (CI) were obtained from Cox proportional hazards models
3
Multivariate results additionally adjusted for parent study treatment regimen
4
The standard first line regimen for mothers was stavudine, lamivudine, and nevirapine
5
Time-updated variable; N refers to person-months
6
From a list that includes fan, refrigerator, sofa, radio/television
7
An episode was defined if the symptom was reported during the 4 weeks prior to the visit