Table 4.
Maternal, socioeconomic and child risk factors of time to underweight
| N1 | Events | Univariate | Multivariate | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HR (95% CI)2 | p | HR (95% CI)2,3 | p | |||
|
Maternal Characteristics
| ||||||
| Age at delivery (years) | ||||||
| <20 | 71 | 24 | 1.00 | 0.12 | ||
| 20–24 | 498 | 156 | 0.93 (0.61, 1.43) | |||
| ≥ 25 | 1476 | 438 | 0.82 (0.55, 1.24) | |||
| Marital status | ||||||
| Single/Widowed/Divorced/Other | 274 | 82 | 1.00 | 0.93 | ||
| Married | 1834 | 562 | 0.99 (0.79, 1.25) | |||
| Number of prior pregnancies | ||||||
| 0 | 477 | 132 | 1.00 | 0.62 | ||
| 1–3 | 1467 | 461 | 1.09 (0.90, 1.32) | |||
| ≥ 4 | 165 | 49 | 1.03 (0.74, 1.42) | |||
| Formal education (years) | ||||||
| 0 | 141 | 55 | 1.00 | <0.0001 | 1.00 | 0.02 |
| 1–7 | 1519 | 494 | 0.86 (0.65, 1.14) | 0.94 (0.71, 1.25) | ||
| ≥ 8 | 452 | 95 | 0.52 (0.37, 0.72) | 0.72 (0.51, 1.01) | ||
| Occupation | ||||||
| Housewife without income | 1370 | 437 | 1.00 | |||
| Housewife with income | 175 | 49 | 0.85 (0.64, 1.15) | 0.33 | ||
| Business woman | 118 | 24 | 0.61 (0.40, 0.92) | |||
| Other | 393 | 121 | 0.97 (0.79, 1.19) | |||
| Mid-Upper Arm Circumference during pregnancy (cm) | ||||||
| < 22.0 | 132 | 58 | 1.00 | <0.0001 | 1.00 | 0.07 |
| ≥ 22.0 | 1976 | 587 | 0.64 (0.49, 0.84) | 0.77 (0.59, 1.02) | ||
| Height (cm) | ||||||
| < 155.0 | 1038 | 371 | 1.00 | <0.0001 | 1.00 | <0.0001 |
| ≥ 155.0 | 1091 | 278 | 0.65 (0.55, 0.75) | 0.67 (0.58, 0.79) | ||
| WHO HIV disease stage | ||||||
| 1 | 955 | 268 | 1.00 | 0.10 | ||
| 2 | 193 | 56 | 1.07 (0.80, 1.42) | |||
| ≥ 3 | 147 | 51 | 1.30 (0.97, 1.76) | |||
| Received ARVs during pregnancy4 | ||||||
| No | 1552 | 473 | 1.00 | 0.57 | ||
| Yes | 380 | 119 | 1.06 (0.87, 1.30) | |||
| Vital status5 | ||||||
| Alive | 31459 | 648 | 1.00 | 0.59 | ||
| Dead | 104 | 1 | 0.58 (0.08, 4.12) | |||
|
| ||||||
|
Socioeconomic Characteristics
| ||||||
| Household food expenditure (TShs/person/day) | ||||||
| < 500 | 271 | 96 | 1.00 | 0.19 | ||
| ≥ 500 | 1729 | 521 | 0.87 (0.70, 1.08) | |||
| Household possessions6 | ||||||
| 0 | 296 | 116 | 1.00 | <0.0001 | 1.00 | <0.0001 |
| 1–2 | 967 | 321 | 0.82 (0.67, 1.02) | 0.86 (0.69, 1.07) | ||
| ≥ 3 | 846 | 206 | 0.57 (0.45, 0.72) | 0.62 (0.49, 0.79) | ||
|
| ||||||
|
Child Characteristics
| ||||||
| Sex | ||||||
| Female | 985 | 280 | 1.00 | 0.03 | 1.00 | 0.003 |
| Male | 1145 | 369 | 1.18 (1.01, 1.38) | 1.28 (1.09, 1.50) | ||
| Birth weight (g) | ||||||
| ≥ 2,500 | 1977 | 577 | 1.00 | <0.0001 | 1.00 | 0.0006 |
| < 2,500 | 73 | 37 | 2.16 (1.55, 3.02) | 1.81 (1.29, 2.55) | ||
| Gestational age at birth (weeks) | ||||||
| ≥ 37 | 1825 | 535 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
| < 37 | 275 | 106 | 1.42 (1.15, 1.75) | 0.001 | 1.30 (1.05, 1.61) | 0.02 |
| Place of birth | ||||||
| Home | 43 | 16 | 1.00 | 0.10 | ||
| Hospital/clinic | 1997 | 600 | 0.66 (0.40, 1.08) | |||
| Child fed colostrum | ||||||
| Yes | 1667 | 495 | 1.00 | 0.93 | ||
| No | 179 | 51 | 0.99 (0.74, 1.32) | |||
| Child received BCG immunization as a newborn | ||||||
| Yes | 1665 | 484 | 1.00 | 0.08 | 1.00 | 0.78 |
| No | 179 | 62 | 1.26 (0.97, 1.65) | 1.04 (0.79, 1.37) | ||
| Exclusively breastfed5 | ||||||
| No | 25,463 | 477 | 1.00 | 0.04 | 1.00 | 0.30 |
| Yes | 6,003 | 171 | 1.29 (1.01, 1.64) | 1.14 (0.89, 1.44) | ||
| Anemia (Hb <11 g/dL)5 | ||||||
| No | 5,674 | 117 | 1.00 | 0.40 | ||
| Yes | 24,553 | 499 | 1.09 (0.89, 1.34) | |||
| Cotrimoxazole consumption last month5 | ||||||
| 0 | 1,788 | 37 | 1.00 | 0.91 | ||
| 1–20 times | 3,211 | 75 | 1.06 (0.71, 1.58) | |||
| ≥ 21 times | 16,759 | 324 | 0.88 (0.62, 1.26) | |||
| HIV status5 | ||||||
| Negative | 29,065 | 509 | 1.00 | <0.0001 | 1.00 | <0.0001 |
| Positive | 2,463 | 138 | 3.13 (2.59, 3.78) | 3.21 (2.65, 3.89) | ||
| Cumulative morbidity episodes5,7 | ||||||
| Diarrhea | ||||||
| 0 | 23,580 | 536 | 1.00 | 0.06 | 1.00 | 0.42 |
| 1–2 | 7,011 | 105 | 0.87 (0.69, 1.09) | 0.98 (0.78, 1.24) | ||
| ≥ 3 | 971 | 8 | 0.55 (0.27, 1.12) | 0.65 (0.31, 1.34) | ||
| Fever | ||||||
| 0 | 18,281 | 435 | 1.00 | |||
| 1–2 | 10,019 | 165 | 0.95 (0.78, 1.17) | 0.75 | ||
| 3–4 | 2,395 | 43 | 1.25 (0.88, 1.78) | |||
| ≥ 5 | 866 | 6 | 0.52 (0.22, 1.18) | |||
| Common Cold | ||||||
| 0 | 9,702 | 238 | 1.00 | |||
| 1–2 | 11,603 | 272 | 1.12 (0.92, 1.35) | 0.54 | ||
| 3–4 | 5,695 | 84 | 0.94 (0.70, 1.27) | |||
| ≥ 5 | 4,562 | 55 | 0.86 (0.60, 1.24) | |||
| Vomiting | ||||||
| 0 | 28,552 | 609 | 1.00 | 0.14 | ||
| 1 | 2,431 | 37 | 0.95 (0.68, 1.34) | |||
| ≥ 2 | 610 | 3 | 0.35 (0.11, 1.08) | |||
| Refusal to eat, drink or breastfeed | ||||||
| 0 | 27,487 | 609 | 1.00 | 0.003 | 1.00 | 0.07 |
| 1 | 2,939 | 33 | 0.69 (0.48, 0.99) | 0.83 (0.56, 1.23) | ||
| ≥ 2 | 1,137 | 7 | 0.40 (0.19, 0.86) | 0.51 (0.23, 1.13) | ||
| Cough alone | ||||||
| 0 | 10,905 | 273 | 1.00 | |||
| 1–2 | 9,967 | 231 | 1.14 (0.93, 1.38) | |||
| 3–4 | 5,263 | 83 | 1.01 (0.74, 1.37) | 0.47 | ||
| ≥ 5 | 5,426 | 62 | 0.81 (0.56, 1.17) | |||
| Cough and fever | ||||||
| 0 | 22,315 | 499 | 1.00 | 0.75 | ||
| 1–2 | 7,854 | 131 | 1.05 (0.85, 1.30) | |||
| ≥ 3 | 1,394 | 19 | 1.01 (0.62, 1.64) | |||
| Cough plus difficulty breathing, rapid respiratory rate or refusal to eat | ||||||
| 0 | 27,363 | 599 | 1.00 | 0.03 | 1.00 | 0.19 |
| ≥ 1 | 4,199 | 50 | 0.72 (0.53, 0.97) | 0.80 (0.32, 1.97) | ||
1
N represents the number of children for time-fixed predictors, and number of person-months for time-varying
2
Hazard Ratios (HR) and 95% Confidence Intervals (CI) were obtained from Cox proportional hazards models
3
Multivariate results additionally adjusted for parent study treatment regimen
4
The standard first line regimen for mothers was stavudine, lamivudine, and nevirapine
5
Time-updated variable; N refers to person-months
6
From a list that includes fan, refrigerator, sofa, radio/television
7
An episode was defined if the symptom was reported during the 4 weeks prior to the visit