Table 3.

Associations between selected birth defects and mean daily universal apparent temperature during the critical period of embryogenesis, upstate New York, 1992–2006.

Birth outcome group	n	Daily minimum UAT				Daily mean UAT				Daily maximum UAT
		Mean ± SD	5°F increase		Mean ± SD	5°F increase		Mean ± SD	5°F increase
			ORa (95% CI)			ORa (95% CI)			ORa (95% CI)
Controls	59,328	59.1 ± 6.2	—		69.4 ± 5.9	—		79.2 ± 5.7	—
Central nervous system
Anencephalus	21	56.9 ± 3.6	0.94	(0.63, 1.42)	67.4 ± 3.8	0.93	(0.61, 1.43)	77.6 ± 4.0	0.95	(0.62, 1.46)
Spina bifida without anencephalus	114	58.6 ± 5.8	1.12	(0.92, 1.35)	68.9 ± 5.4	1.10	(0.90, 1.34)	78.8 ± 5.2	1.08	(0.89, 1.32)
Hydrocephalus without spina bifida	311	59.3 ± 6.2	1.06	(0.95, 1.18)	69.6 ± 5.7	1.07	(0.95, 1.20)	79.4 ± 5.4	1.07	(0.95, 1.19)
Encephalocele	25	58.0 ± 6.1	0.92	(0.64, 1.32)	68.3 ± 5.9	0.92	(0.63, 1.33)	78.2 ± 5.9	0.93	(0.64, 1.35)
Microcephalus	199	58.5 ± 6.9	0.93	(0.82, 1.06)	68.7 ± 6.5	0.93	(0.81, 1.06)	78.4 ± 6.3	0.92	(0.80, 1.05)
Eye
Anophthalmia/microphthalmia	34	58.2 ± 6.2	0.71	(0.54, 0.94)*	68.2 ± 6.2	0.70	(0.53, 0.93)*	77.8 ± 6.4	0.70	(0.52, 0.93)*
Congenital cataract	75	60.5 ± 5.1	1.51	(1.14, 1.99)*	71.0 ± 4.9	1.47	(1.11, 1.94)*	81.0 ± 4.9	1.45	(1.10, 1.90)*
Cardiovascular
Common truncus	9	57.2 ± 8.2	0.99	(0.53, 1.86)	67.7 ± 7.7	1.02	(0.52, 1.98)	77.7 ± 7.2	1.07	(0.54, 2.11)
Transposition of great arteries	68	58.7 ± 5.7	1.04	(0.82, 1.33)	69.4 ± 5.4	1.07	(0.84, 1.37)	79.6 ± 5.3	1.08	(0.84, 1.37)
Tetralogy of Fallot	106	59.3 ± 6.1	0.99	(0.83, 1.19)	69.5 ± 5.8	0.98	(0.82, 1.18)	79.2 ± 5.5	0.98	(0.82, 1.18)
Ventricular septal defect	1,579	59.0 ± 6.2	1.00	(0.96, 1.05)	69.5 ± 5.8	1.01	(0.96, 1.06)	79.2 ± 5.6	1.00	(0.95, 1.05)
Atrial septal defect	822	59.9 ± 6.4	0.96	(0.90, 1.02)	69.8 ± 6.1	0.96	(0.90, 1.02)	79.4 ± 6.0	0.97	(0.90, 1.03)
Endocardial cushion defect	43	58.2 ± 5.3	0.97	(0.73, 1.29)	68.7 ± 5.4	0.97	(0.72, 1.30)	78.7 ± 5.6	0.98	(0.73, 1.32)
Pulmonary valve atresia/stenosis	457	59.3 ± 6.2	1.07	(0.97, 1.17)	69.5 ± 5.8	1.07	(0.98, 1.17)	79.2 ± 5.6	1.07	(0.97, 1.17)
Tricuspid atresia/stenosis	44	58.7 ± 7.1	0.99	(0.75, 1.32)	68.8 ± 6.9	0.97	(0.73, 1.29)	78.4 ± 6.7	0.95	(0.71, 1.27)
Ebstein’s anomaly	23	59.5 ± 4.7	1.06	(0.70, 1.59)	69.9 ± 4.3	1.12	(0.73, 1.71)	79.8 ± 4.3	1.18	(0.76, 1.83)
Aortic valve stenosis	102	59.5 ± 5.8	1.08	(0.89, 1.31)	69.8 ± 5.6	1.08	(0.89, 1.31)	79.6 ± 5.6	1.08	(0.89, 1.31)
Hypoplastic left heart syndrome	96	58.9 ± 6.3	0.99	(0.82, 1.20)	69.3 ± 6.1	0.98	(0.81, 1.19)	79.2 ± 6.0	0.98	(0.81, 1.19)
Patent ductus arteriosus (≥ 2,500 g)	566	59.7 ± 6.1	0.96	(0.89, 1.03)	69.6 ± 5.8	0.95	(0.88, 1.03)	79.0 ± 5.6	0.95	(0.88, 1.03)
Coarctation of aorta	235	59.0 ± 5.9	1.05	(0.92, 1.19)	69.3 ± 5.7	1.06	(0.93, 1.21)	79.2 ± 5.6	1.08	(0.95, 1.24)
Craniofacial
Choanal atresia	99	58.3 ± 6.6	0.90	(0.75, 1.08)	68.7 ± 6.2	0.90	(0.75, 1.08)	78.7 ± 6.0	0.91	(0.76, 1.09)
Cleft palate without cleft lip	340	58.4 ± 6.1	0.99	(0.89, 1.10)	68.8 ± 5.7	0.99	(0.89, 1.10)	78.7 ± 5.6	0.97	(0.87, 1.08)
Cleft lip ± cleft palate	501	58.6 ± 6.4	0.98	(0.90, 1.07)	69.1 ± 6.0	0.98	(0.90, 1.07)	79.1 ± 5.9	0.99	(0.91, 1.07)
Genitourinary
Renal agenesis/hypoplasia	174	59.8 ± 5.8	1.17	(1.00, 1.37)*	70.1 ± 5.5	1.15	(0.99, 1.35)	79.8 ± 5.3	1.13	(0.97, 1.32)
Musculoskeletal
Upper limb reduction	105	58.7 ± 5.6	1.09	(0.89, 1.33)	69.2 ± 5.3	1.11	(0.90, 1.36)	79.3 ± 5.4	1.12	(0.91, 1.38)
Lower limb reduction	85	59.1 ± 6.4	1.10	(0.88, 1.37)	69.4 ± 6.0	1.10	(0.88, 1.38)	79.2 ± 5.7	1.09	(0.87, 1.36)
Gastroschisis	108	58.3 ± 5.6	1.00	(0.83, 1.21)	68.6 ± 5.7	0.98	(0.82, 1.19)	78.5 ± 5.8	0.99	(0.82, 1.19)
Omphalocele	81	59.0 ± 5.7	1.12	(0.89, 1.42)	69.3 ± 5.3	1.12	(0.89, 1.42)	79.1 ± 5.3	1.12	(0.88, 1.41)
aORs were adjusted for maternal age, race, ethnicity, adequacy of prenatal care, smoking, weather region, and year. *Statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05).