Table 2.
Hypothalamic reprogramming by maternal under-nutrition.
| Type of alteration | Outcome in offspring (sex; age) | Type of maternal under-nutrition (period of exposure) | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Size of specific HT areas | ↑ relative volume of VMH and ↓ absolute volume of PVN (males; 20 d) | 8% low protein diet (G and L) | Plagemann et al., 2000a |
| Number of neurons | ↑ density of neurons in PVN and VMH (males; 20 d) | 8% low protein diet (G and L) | Plagemann et al., 2000a |
| ↓ neurons in ARC (males and females; 25 d) | 20% caloric restriction (first 12 d of G) | Garcia et al., 2010 | |
| ↑ cell proliferation in PVN, VMH, and ARC (males; 8 d and 15 d) | 50% caloric restriction (from d 14 of G and L) | Coupe et al., 2009a | |
| Neuron connections | ↓ αMSH fibers in PVN (males; 16 d) | 8% low protein diet (G and L) | Coupe et al., 2010 |
| ↓ POMC neuron fiber projections from ARC to the PVN (males; 21 d) | 50% caloric restriction (from d 14 of G and L) | Delahaye et al., 2008 | |
| Types of neurons and expression of neuropeptides/receptors | ↓ NPY positive cells in ARC | ||
| (males; 20 d) | 8% low protein diet (G and L) | Plagemann et al., 2000a | |
| (males and females; 25 d) | 20% caloric restriction (first 12 d of G) | Garcia et al., 2010 | |
| ↓ expression of POMC in ARC (males; 14, 17, 21, and 30 d) | 50% caloric restriction (from d 14 of G and L) | Delahaye et al., 2008 | |
| ↓ expression of POMC, AgRP, and CART in hypothalamus (males and females; 25 d) | |||
| ↓ expression of NPY in hypothalamus (females; 25 d) | 20% caloric restriction (first 12 d of G) | Garcia et al., 2010 | |
| ↑ expression of NPY and AgRP in hypothalamus | |||
| (males; 22 d) | 8% low protein diet (G and L) | Coupe et al., 2009b | |
| ↑ NPY levels in PVN and LHA (males; 20 d) | 8% low protein diet (G and L) | Plagemann et al., 2000b | |
| ↓ expression of leptin receptor in hypothalamus | |||
| (males; 21 d) | 50% caloric restriction (from d 10 of G and L) | Desai et al., 2007a | |
| (males and females; 25 d) | 20% caloric restriction (first 12 d of G) | Garcia et al., 2010 | |
| (males; 4 m) | 30% caloric restriction (G) | Breton et al., 2009 | |
| (females; 6 m) | 20% caloric restriction (first 12 d of G) | Palou et al., 2012 | |
| ↓ expression of insulin receptor in hypothalamus | |||
| (males and females; 25 d) | 20% caloric restriction (first 12 d of G) | Garcia et al., 2010 |
Variety of alterations described in the hypothalamus of offspring from mothers submitted to different types of energy restriction. The specific outcome is summarized including the sex and age in which the outcome has been reported. Abbreviations: AgRP, agouti-related peptide; ARC, arcuate nucleus; CART, cocaine-related and amphetamine-regulated transcript; d, day; G, gestation; HT, hypothalamus; L, Lactation; LHA, lateral hypothalamic areas; MSH, α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone; m, month; POMC, pro-opiomelanocortin; PVN, paraventricular nucleus; VMH, ventromedial hypothalamus.