Table 1. Seasonal and spatial variation of human disturbance recorded in a complex multi-use landscape of SW Alberta, Canada.

	Summer			Hunting			Winter-Spring*
	(late May through early September)			(early September through the end of November)			(December through late May)
	Public land	Private land	National Park	Public land	Private land	National Park	Private land	National Park
HUNTING	X	X	X	√	√LR	X PIO	X	X PIO
ATVs	√	√LR	X	√	√LR	X	X	X
Human presence1 mean vehicles per day±SE	167±11	64±3	436±32	157±10	90±5	338±25	27±1	60±4
vehicles per hour	7	3	18	7	4	14	1	2

[X: not allowed; √: allowed; ^LR landowner restricted; ^PIO permitted immediately outside park’s borders; ¹ average number of vehicles having access to areas where elk behavioural observations were performed, as recorded by road counters; *elk were not observed on public lands in winter-spring when they usually move to lower elevations within private lands and the national park].