. 2012 Nov 2;4(11):1575–1609. doi: 10.3390/nu4111575

Table 5.

Factors associated with the introduction of complementary foods.

Author, year [reference] country	N	Study Type and Methods	PositiveAssociation	Negative Association	No Association	Confounders Adjustedfor
Alder et al. (2004) [35] UK	286	Prospective Cohort		Influenced by grandmother’s opinion, high deprivation score, disagree with IFR, friends disagree with IFR, received free sample of baby food	Maternal age, infant sex, employed before pregnancy, looking forward to giving solids, giving the infant solids <4 months means they have reached a milestone, people who are important to me say wait until 4 months	Maternal age, infant sex, influenced by grandmother’s opinion, high deprivation score, disagree with IFR, friends disagree with IFR, received free sample of baby food, employed before pregnancy, looking forward to giving solids, giving the infant solids <4 months means they have reached a milestone, influence of others
Alder et al. (2004) [35] UK	286	Interview at 12 weeks, & Questionnaire at 20 weeks postpartum
Coleman et al. * (2009) [36] Canada	2153	Cross sectional		Maternal smoking during pregnancy, FF infant, living with a smoker, maternal age (≤27 years) not attending prenatal class, low, first child	Parity	Maternal age, maternal smoking during pregnancy, parity, marital status, method of infant feeding at 3 months, living with a smoker, prenatal class attendance, income
Coleman et al. * (2009) [36] Canada	2153	Phone survey at 3 & 9 months postpartum			Parity
Crocetti, Dudas and Krugman (2004) [37] USA	102	Cross sectional		Ethnicity (Hispanic)	Maternal age (<20 years), maternal ethnicity, maternal education, BF, Medicaid	Maternal age, caring for 1 child, awareness of infant feeding guidelines, race, insurance, maternal education, type of milk feeding
Crocetti, Dudas and Krugman (2004) [37] USA	102	Questionnaire at 4 months postpartum		Ethnicity (Hispanic)
Dratva, Merten & Ackermann-Liebrich (2006) [38] Switzerland	2868	Cross sectional	Multiparous (Swiss mothers only), allergic predisposition (Swiss mothers only)	Maternal age (<20 years), residing in French & Italian speaking region of Switzerland, high maternal BMI, maternal smoking before birth	Mothers attentiveness to own diet, health problems at birth, health problems now, birth weight	Income, maternal education, work after birth, raising child alone, infant sex, nationality
Dratva, Merten & Ackermann-Liebrich (2006) [38] Switzerland	2868	Questionnaire & 24 h dietary recall
Erkkola et al .(2005) [39] Finland	429	Prospective cohort	Maternal age (1 year increments), high maternal & paternal education, infant sex (girl)		Not listed	Maternal age, maternal education, infant sex, parity, infant’s ponderal index at birth
Erkkola et al .(2005) [39] Finland	429	Questionnaire at 3, 6, 12, 18, 24 months postpartum			Not listed
Fewtrell et al. (2003) [40] UK		Data from >2000 infants from 7 prospective randomised trails	Maternal age	Smoking, not BF	Birth weight	Type of milk fed, maternal age, birth weight, sex, whether mother and father smoked during 2nd and 3rd trimesters, social class, child’s birth order, maternal education
Giovannini et al. (2004) [41] Italy	1221	Cross sectional		Introduction of formula, not BF infant, infant weight at 1 month, maternal smoking	Maternal age, pacifier use at 1 month	Maternal age, maternal BMI, maternal education, maternal smoking, type of delivery, mother having been breastfed, infant sex, infant weight at 1 month, pacifier use at hospital ward & at 1 month, parity, introduction of formula, formula promotion at discharge, time of initiation of BF
		National survey
		Phone Interview at 30 days, 1, 3, 6 & 9 months postpartum
Griffiths et al. (2007) [42] England	11,286	Cross sectional analysis of MCS	Ethnic minority, mother not returning to work ≤4 months postpartum	Low maternal education (non-white), high SES (non-white), stopped BF ≤4 months	Maternal qualification (white), lone mother status,	SES, maternal education, maternal employment status, lone mother status, maternal age at MCS birth, maternal age at first birth, parity, BF
Griffiths et al. (2007) [42] England	11,286	Questionnaire at 9 months postpartum			Maternal qualification (white), lone mother status,
Grummer-Strawn et al. (2008) [43] USA	2707	Prospective cohort (IFPS II)	Maternal age (>25 years), high maternal education, living in western region, BF in hospital	WIC participant, Income (185%-350%, of federal poverty level)	Race, parity	Maternal age, education, ethnicity, race, parity, income, WIC participant, region, BF in hospital & BF at 24-28 weeks
Grummer-Strawn et al. (2008) [43] USA	2707	Questionnaire (1-6 months) then 7½, 9, 10½, & 12 months			Race, parity
Hampson et al. (2010) [44] Norway	37,919	Prospective cohort		High negative affectivity score	Not listed	Maternal age, maternal BMI, maternal education
Hampson et al. (2010) [44] Norway	37,919	Questionnaire at 17 & 30 weeks gestation & 6 months postpartum		High negative affectivity score	Not listed	Maternal age, maternal BMI, maternal education
Hart & Drotar (2006) [45] USA	98	Cross sectional	Doctor’s recommendations to start food, marital status		Number of solutions generated to child-rearing problems	Marital status, child’s age
Hart & Drotar (2006) [45] USA	98	Questionnaire (infant aged 6-18 months)	Doctor’s recommendations to start food, marital status		Number of solutions generated to child-rearing problems	Marital status, child’s age
Kim et al. (2008) [46] USA	8150	Cross sectional		Attending childcare before 3 months of age	Not listed	Infant age, sex, race/ethnicity, birth weight, prematurity, household poverty, maternal education, maternal employment, marital status, maternal smoking, maternal pre-pregnancy BMI, BF initiation or early introduction of food
Kim et al. (2008) [46] USA	8150	Interview at 9 months		Attending childcare before 3 months of age	Not listed
Lande et al. (2003) [47] Norway	2383	Cross sectional Nationwide survey	Maternal age (>25), maternal education, degree of urbanization, infant sex (girl), geographic region (east, south, top, north)	Maternal smoking, geographic region (west)	Not listed	Maternal age, maternal education, maternal smoking, degree of urbanization, infant sex, geographic region
Lande et al. (2003) [47] Norway	2383	FFQ at 6 months & retrospective FFQ for ≤5 months, birth records		Maternal smoking, geographic region (west)	Not listed
Rebhan et al. (2009) [48] Germany	3103	Prospective cohort		Maternal age (>34 years), low maternal education, country of birth (outside Germany), maternal smoking, not BF at 4 months	Family status, infant sex, parity, BF problems, attitude of father to BF, parents with allergy, caffeine, maternal BMI, districts of Bavaria, clinic size	Maternal age, maternal education, country of birth, maternal smoking, infant sex, BF at 4 months, family status, parity, BF problems, attitude of father to BF, parents with allergy, caffeine, maternal BMI, districts of Bavaria, clinic size
Rebhan et al. (2009) [48] Germany	3103	Questionnaire at 6 days, 2, 4, 6 & 9 months
Schiess et al. (2009) [49] 5 European countries (Germany, Belgium, Italy, Poland, Spain)	851 FF, 349 BF	Multicentre intervention		Low maternal education (FF & BF), maternal smoking (FF), country of residence (Belgium & Spain) for BF, only Belgium for FF	Maternal age (BF), maternal smoking (BF), birth weight, birth order, infant sex	Country of residence, maternal age, maternal education, maternal smoking
	851 FF, 349 BF	3-DDR at each completed month from 1-9 &12
Scott et al. (2009) [50] Australia	519	Prospective cohort (PIFSII)		Maternal age (<20 years), maternal smoking, fully FF at 4 weeks, partially BF at 4 weeks	Infant sex, birth weight, admission to SCN, infant feeding at discharge, maternal education, marital status, country of birth, parity, mother returning to work at 12 months, infant feeding attitude score	Maternal age, maternal smoking, infant sex, birth weight, infant feeding at 4 weeks, admission to SCN, infant feeding at discharge, maternal education, marital status, country of birth, parity, mother returning to work at 12 months, infant feeding attitude score
Scott et al. (2009) [50] Australia	519	Baseline Qu, phone Intvs at 4, 10, 16, 22, 32, 40 & 52 weeks
Tatone-Tokuda et al. (2009) [51] Canada	2223	Cross-sectional analysis on QLSCD	Low maternal self-efficacy ^‡, immigrant	Maternal smoking during pregnancy, low maternal education, maternal age (<35 years), parental impact ^‡, low SES, infant sex (boy), infant birth weight (>2.5 kg)	Mother’s perception of overprotectiveness, main employment status of the mother	All variable in model (maternal self-efficacy, mothers perception of parental impact, mother smoking during pregnancy, maternal education, maternal age immigrant status, SES, infant sex, infant birth weight
Tatone-Tokuda et al. (2009) [51] Canada	2223	Interviews & Questionnaires at 5 months, birth records	Low maternal self-efficacy ^‡, immigrant
Tarrant et al. (2010) [52] Ireland	401	Prospective cohort	Public health nurse as principal source of advice	Maternal age (≤34), low maternal education, mothers reporting infants should start at 12 weeks, FF at 12 weeks, maternal grandmother as principal source of advice	Smoking status during pregnancy, birth weight	Maternal age, maternal education, smoking status during pregnancy, parity, infant birth weight, gestational age of infant at birth
Tarrant et al. (2010) [52] Ireland	401	Questionnaire & DH at 6 weeks & 6 months	Public health nurse as principal source of advice		Smoking status during pregnancy, birth weight
Wasser et al. (2010) [26] USA	217	Cross sectional anaylsis of the Infant Care study	Any BF, maternal education	Distress to limitation, activity level, maternal obesity (BMI ≥ 30)	Soothability, infant sex, infant age, social desirability	Maternal BMI, soothability, infant sex, infant age, social desirability, distress to limitation, activity level
Wasser et al. (2010) [26] USA	217	Infant DH, 24 h DR at 3 months postpartum	Any BF, maternal education		Soothability, infant sex, infant age, social desirability
Wright et al. (2004) [53] UK	207	MCS	BF at 4 months	Baby seemed hungry, high deprivation score	Not listed	BF at 4 months, baby seemed hungry, high deprivation scores, infant weight gain
Wright et al. (2004) [53] UK	207	Questionnaires at 6 weeks, 4, 8, 12 months postpartum	BF at 4 months	Baby seemed hungry, high deprivation score	Not listed

BF, Breastfeeding; BMI, Body Mass Index; DH, Diet history; DR, Dietary recall; FF, Formula feeding; FFQ, Food frequency questionnaire; IFPS II, Infant Feeding Practices Study II; IFR, Infant feeding recommendation; MCS, Millennium Cohort Study; PIFS II, Perth Infant Feeding Study II; QLSCD, Québec Longitudinal Study of Child Development; SCN, Special care nursery; SES, Socioeconomic Status; WIC, Support for low-income mothers; 3-DDR, Three day diet record; * measured the introduction of cereal only; ^‡ borderline significant (CI includes 1.0, p value significant).