Table 1.

Animal models.

Model	Pre-treatment	Animal	Features	Limitations	Reference
EHEC	none	Gnotobiotic piglet	Focal renal lesions, renal thrombotic microangiopathy	Normal serum creatinine; no thrombocytopenia	[103]
EHEC	streptomycin	CD-1 mice	Bacterial colonization; loose stools, anorexia, lethargy	No disease unless host-adapted strain used; no glomerular damage, coagulopathy or thrombocytopenia	[104,105]
EHEC	streptomycin and mitomycin C	ICR mice	Weakness, weight loss, microhemorrhages in brain and spinal cord, high BUN	Serum creatinine normal, unremarkable kidney pathology	[106]
EHEC	None or TNFα	Germ free IQI mice	Anorexia, renal tubular necrosis, thrombocytopenia, leukocytosis	No glomerular histopathology, inflammation only with TNFα pre-treatment	[107]
EHEC	24 hour fast	C3H/HeJ mice	Gastrointestinal, neurologic and systemic symptoms, renal inflammation and necrosis, fragmented red blood cells	Kidney function and platelets not measure	[108]
EHEC	none	Newly weaned BALB/c mice	Renal damage, high urea concentrations, colon pathology	Thrombotic microangiopathy not evaluated	[109]
EHEC	Protein calorie malnutrition	C57Bl/6J mice	Systemic and neurologic symptoms, increased BUN, mild renal tubular degeneration	Normal serum creatinine, normal glomeruli, no significant platelet changes	[110]
EHEC	Host-adapted bacteria	Dutch Belted rabbits	Diarrhea, lethargy, anorexia, dehydration glomerular thrombi and renal congestion	No consistent thrombocytopenia	[111]
Stx1	none	baboon	Thrombocytopenia, schistocytosis and hemolytic anemia, renal failure, GI injury, lesions in CNS, systemic inflammation	Non-bacterial	[42,48]
Stx2	none	baboon	Thrombocytopenia, leukocytosis, acute renal failure, schistocytosis, hemolytic uremia, glomerular thrombotic microangiopathy, systemic inflammation	Non-bacterial	[42,112]
Stx2	none	C57Bl/6J mice	Increased plasma BUN and creatinine, hemolysis, neutrophilia	Non-bacterial, no thrombocytopenia	[113]
Stx2+LPS	none	C57Bl/6J mice	Neutrophilia, thrombocytopenia, hemolysis, increased BUN and creatinine, renal histopathology	Non-bacterial, LPS effect depends on timing of administration, consumptive coagulopathy	[29]
EHEC culture supernatant	none	Sprague-Dawley rats	Increased BUN and creatinine, thrombocytopenia, hemolytic anemia and leukocytosis, renal histologic changes, watery diarrhea	Non-bacterial, crude bacterial supernatants rather than purified toxin(s).	[114]