Table 3.

Types of pain in Parkinson's disease and potential management approaches (adapted from Ford [2010]).

Type of pain	Management approaches
Musculoskeletal	Simple analgesia
	Physical and occupational therapy [PT/OT] to prevent contractures and optimize function
	Orthopaedic surgery if indicated for joint abnormalities
Neuropathic or radicular	Neuropathy screen
	Consider electromyography/nerve conduction studies
	PT/OT
	Decompressive surgery where indicated
Dystonia and dyskinesia	Optimise dopaminergic and antidyskinetic therapies
	Consider baclofen, apomorphine, anticholinergics, amantadine
	Botulinum toxin may be beneficial in selected patients
	Deep brain stimulation may have a role
Central	Neuropathic pain agents such as carbamazepine, gabapentin and tricyclic antidepressants may be helpful
	Opiates
Akathisia	Optimization of dopaminergic therapy
	Opiates
	Avoidance of neuroleptics