Table 2.
Main Effects Models Examining the Influence of Employment After Birth on the Development of Cognitive Skills and Behavior Problems at Age 7
| Independent Variables | WJ Letter Word | WJ Applied Problems | Affective Problems | Anxiety Problems | Somatic Problems | Atten. Deficit/Hyperactivity | Opp. Defiant Problems | Conduct Problems |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ever Employed OLS Model (n=444 ) | ||||||||
| Employment | ||||||||
| Ever employed | −3.43(3.53) | 3.66(3.96) | −0.68(0.98) | −2.53(1.16)* | −3.14(1.33)* | −2.17(1.38) | −2.18(1.33) | −4.48(1.56)** |
| Employment History Covariates | ||||||||
| Mother emp before birth | −0.70(3.32) | −1.01(3.11) | −0.45(0.97) | −0.43(0.85) | 1.99(1.13)+ | −0.67(1.1) | −0.29(1.12) | 0.05(1.06) |
| Mother emp at wave 3 | −1.24(2.82) | −2.17(3.70) | −0.09(0.95) | −0.44(0.94) | −0.88(0.97) | −0.18(1.12) | 0.51(1.10) | 0.73(1.12) |
| Child Covariates | ||||||||
| Age of child | 0.13(0.21) | 0.24(0.24) | 0.16(0.08)* | 0.06(0.06) | 0.07(0.07) | 0.03(0.07) | 0.09(0.08) | 0.04(0.08) |
| Boy | −5.06(2.34)* | 0.35(2.97) | −0.34(0.79) | −0.13(0.78) | −0.77(0.80) | 1.46(0.92) | 0.96(0.84) | 0.00(0.85) |
| Hispanic | 1.41(2.65) | −0.65(3.33) | 0.34(0.90) | 1.39(0.91) | −0.81(1.09) | 1.53(1.01) | 1.16(1.03) | 0.75(1.11) |
| White | −12.66(4.29)** | −10.28(7.73) | 1.48(2.12) | −1.08(1.61) | 0.57(2.29) | −0.22(1.74) | 1.72(2.26) | −1.70(1.91) |
| Developmental delay | −6.03(2.50)* | −8.08(3.49)* | 2.50(0.92)** | 1.71(0.91)+ | 1.53(1.03) | 1.57(0.99) | 1.22(0.97) | 0.74(0.99) |
| Low birthweight | −5.50(6.59) | −11.51(4.16)** | 1.06(2.77) | 0.65(1.95) | −1.42(2.11) | 1.35(2.29) | 1.56(2.14) | 0.40(2.73) |
| Formal child care | 5.88(3.50)+ | −1.70(4.07) | 0.99(1.14) | 0.91(0.98) | 1.04(1.34) | 2.07(1.06)+ | 2.45(1.39)+ | 1.48(1.42) |
| Informal child care | 5.32(2.83)+ | 1.33(4.19) | 1.72(1.09) | 1.47(1.11) | 1.90(1.11)+ | 2.93(1.24)* | 2.27(1.27)+ | 1.84(1.28) |
| Mother/Family Covariates | ||||||||
| Age of mother | 0.28(0.20) | −0.03(0.20) | 0.03(0.07) | 0.04(0.06) | −0.07(0.06) | −0.05(0.06) | 0.01(0.08) | 0.02(0.08) |
| Less than high school | −4.22(3.25) | −4.80(4.44) | 1.26(1.07) | −0.41(1.04) | −1.47(1.04) | −0.65(1.12) | 0.29(1.08) | 0.19(1.24) |
| More than high school | 1.43(3.15) | 0.00(3.85) | 1.34(0.96) | −0.28(0.98) | −0.31(1.03) | 0.44(1.06) | 0.86(1.05) | −1.20(1.15) |
| Mother cognitive skills | 0.12(0.09) | 0.10(0.08) | −0.03(0.02) | 0.03(0.02) | 0.01(0.03) | 0.01(0.03) | 0.00(0.03) | 0.00(0.02) |
| Fluent in English | 7.44(4.63) | 0.13(5.79) | −1.01(1.28) | 2.18(1.42) | −0.21(1.55) | 1.58(1.64) | 0.43(1.60) | 0.57(1.96) |
| Married | 5.86(5.96) | −9.14(6.89) | −0.40(1.94) | −1.64(1.33) | −0.51(1.88) | −1.11(1.41) | 1.19(2.84) | −1.48(2.15) |
| # of children | −0.10(0.96) | 0.11(1.15) | 0.29(0.27) | 0.02(0.29) | 0.15(0.34) | 0.08(0.28) | 0.19(0.29) | −0.06(0.28) |
| Welfare | −1.65(2.94) | −1.96(3.75) | −0.25(0.91) | 0.89(0.87) | −1.40(1.03) | 0.93(0.94) | 2.27(1.06)* | 1.91(1.03)+ |
| Working spouse | −0.96(6.75) | 15.29(7.45)* | −0.12(1.98) | 1.62(1.59) | −0.33(1.94) | 1.44(2.07) | −1.62(3.28) | 1.07(2.62) |
| Income-to-Needs | 3.11(2.60) | −0.65(3.00) | −0.03(0.90) | −0.79(0.82) | −1.86(0.98) | −0.49(0.78) | 0.37(0.89) | 0.33(1.00) |
| F of model | 2.47**–3.76** | 2.35**–3.04** | 1.98**–3.12** | 1.57*–2.07** | 1.98**–2.95** | 1.23–1.80* | 1.66+–2.09** | 1.33+–2.39** |
| R2 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.14–0.18 | 0.15–0.19 | 0.10–0.14 | 0.12–0.19 | 0.10–0.13 | 0.12–0.14 | 0.12–0.14 |
| Ever Employed Propensity Score Model (n=238 ) | ||||||||
|
| ||||||||
| Ever employed | −2.39(3.91) | 1.86(3.80) | minus;0.73(1.04) | minus;2.62(1.25)* | minus;3.15(1.33)* | minus;2.49(1.38)+ | minus;2.11(1.37) | minus;5.07(1.58)** |
| F of model | 2.44**–3.47** | 3.13**–3.80** | 3.44**–5.57** | 2.87**–3.46** | 2.78**–5.32** | 2.50**–3.05** | 1.77*–2.33** | 2.83**–3.92** |
| R2 | 0.26–0.30 | 0.25–0.30 | 0.28–0.29 | 0.24–0.53 | 0.17–0.25 | 0.20–0.24 | 0.17–0.21 | 0.20–0.24 |
|
| ||||||||
| Timing of Employment OLS Model (n=444 ) | ||||||||
| First emp 0–8 mths | −4.49(4.42) | 3.85(4.75) | −0.76(1.11) | −2.91(1.29)* | −2.70(1.48)+ | −2.58(1.49)+ | −2.97(1.39)* | −4.78(1.61)** |
| First emp 9–23 mths | 2.46(3.50) | 3.49(3.98) | −0.61(1.12) | −2.18(1.25)+ | −3.54(1.42)* | −1.79(1.50) | −1.45(1.50) | −4.20(1.71)* |
| F of model | 2.41**–3.66** | 2.24**–2.91** | 2.51**–2.95** | 1.50+–2.10** | 1.94**–2.81** | 1.18–1.73* | 1.72*–2.07** | 1.27–2.47** |
| R2 | 0.21–0.26 | 0.14–0.18 | 0.15–0.19 | 0.10–0.14 | 0.13–0.19 | 0.10–0.13 | 0.13–0.15 | 0.12–0.14 |
Note:
+
p<.10,
*
p<.05,
**
p<.01.
Employed groups are compared to the omitted category of no employment. Within each column, groups shared superscript letters are different from each other at the p <.05 level. All models include the covariates denoted in the Ever Employed OLS model.