TABLE 1.

Exemplary School Reform Models With a Strong Research Base

Models	Grade Level	Main Features	Costs	Evidence for Success	Contact
Comprehensive school reform models
America’s Choice	K–12	A standards-based curriculum, which is focused in the early years on literacy in reading, writing, and mathematics, and at the high school level on a demanding academic core, intended to prepare students for college. An intensive PD component for teachers focuses on concrete classroom applications of general ideas and collaboration.	First-year costs are approximately $190,000 (covers PD, staff release time, materials, and two staff positions): can be lowered to $90,000 in subsequent years if current staff is reassigned.	74% of Kentucky’s and 80% of Chicago’s schools met or exceeded performance goals. Studies using rigorous methodology are underway.	National Center on Education and the Economy (www.ncee.org/ac/intro.html).
ATLAS Communities	Pre-K–12	A key feature of ATLAS is the Pre-K–12 “pathway,” which coordinates and produces a coherent educational program for each student from the first day of school through graduation. Teachers engage in sustained PD; involves families and community members in student learning.	First-year costs are approximately $98,000 (covers technical assistance, PD, release time, materials, and a pathway coordinator): $90,000 after first year.	Standardized test score improvements, discipline, and dropout declines are indicated. Longitudinal data collection is underway.	Education Development Center (www.edc.org/FSC/ATLAS).
Community for Learning Model	K–12	Focused on urban and rural schools with a high concentration of disadvantaged students. Holds all students to high standards by connecting learning opportunities in varied environments, including the school and the community (homes, libraries, museums, etc.). Coordinates a health and human services delivery component. Provides PD and support at the school and classroom level.	First-year costs are approximately $157,000 (covers PD, staff release time, and additional staff). Lowered to $82,000 in subsequent years by reassigning current school staff as school facilitators and district staff as project coordinators.	A substantial number of studies have shown promising effects on student achievement, teacher instruction and classroom practice, dropout rates, and school attitudes and climate.	Laboratory for Student Success (www.temple.edu/LSS/cfl.htm).
Co-nect	K–12	Primary purpose is to strengthen literacy and mathematics components of curriculum by integrating technology into instruction and implementing a process to continually assess and improve the model. Provides on-site and online training to assist schools in implementing the design. Offers PD and curriculum resources, discussion areas, and online training modules.	First-year costs average $588,000 (covers PD, staff release time, and technology start-up). On average, schools of 500 pay $55,000 for each of the first 3 years.	Field tests show gains on standardized test and achievement scores. Longitudinal data can be obtained from participating districts and the developer.	Co-nect Schools (www.co-nect.net).
Onward to Excellence	K–12	An external study team (representatives from other schools, the central office, local universities, and the community) collects data and monitors improvement. School leadership teams (principal, selected school staff, community members, and students) guide the school through the process. Workshops over a 2-year period prepare leaders and ensure that each school can encourage continuous improvement on its own.	The cost to schools in the first year is approximately $72,000 (covers one half of the 2-year PD fee, staff release time, one fourth time facilitator’s fee, and travel expenses). The cost of the training workshop is $15,000 for 2 years.	OTE schools across the country have shown improvements in student achievement. Research also shows that OTE has a positive impact on roles and elationships in schools and districts.	School Improvement Program (www.nwrel.org/scpd/ote).
Success For All	Pre-K–8	Schoolwide restructuring program that affects curriculum, pedagogy, scheduling, resource allocation, PD, and family support services. A secret ballot endorsement of at least 80% of the school staff is a required part of the application process. Teachers are provided with detailed materials for use in the classroom. Students often work cooperatively.	First-year costs are approximately $270,000 (covers PD, staff release time, materials, and facilitator and tutor salaries). Lowered to $70,000 in subsequent years.	Studies show significant achievement progress. Compared to other Title 1 schools, retention and special education classes are reduced.	Regional Training Center (www.wested.org and www.successforall.net).
Classroom and curriculum reform models
Core Knowledge	K–8	Pushes for a model national curriculum, built around the idea that U.S. schools need challenging academic standards to provide equal educational opportunity. Common core knowledge is provided in the early grades. An effective tool for lesson planning and sequenced learning is included.	The cost to schools in the first year is approximately $56,000 (covers PD, staff release time, materials, and membership fee).	Data show progress in students’ motivation to learn, achievement scores, teacher communication and attitudes, and school participation.	Core Knowledge Foundation (www.coreknowledge.org)
Cooperative Learning	K–12	Enhances academic engagement and fosters positive relationships between students of diverse backgrounds. Teachers facilitate cultural and individual expressiveness by rewarding group efforts and encouraging students to resolve differences by working together. Cooperative efforts result in participants striving for mutual benefit so that all group members gain from each other’s efforts.	Typical cost of training is $2,000 per day, with additional expenses for supplementary materials. Training usually lasts for 3 to 5 days.	Data indicate higher achievement and greater productivity, more supportive relationships, and improved psychosocial psychological competence.	The Cooperative Learning Center (www.clcrc.com/index.html)
Curriculum Compacting	1–12	Curriculum compacting is a process to streamline and modify the grade-level curriculum by eliminating material that students have previously learned. In doing so, all learners are challenged, and students who demonstrate high levels of achievement are provided with time for differentiated enrichment or acceleration activities.	Costs for training and materials range from $3,000 to $8,000.	Research documents the effectiveness of curriculum compacting, showing positive outcomes for both students and teachers.	The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented (www.gifted.uconn.edu).
Direct Instruction	K–8	Learning can be accelerated if instructional presentations are clear, rule out misinterpretations, and facilitate generalizations. Each direct instruction program is shaped through field tryouts, student errors are evaluated, and lessons are revised prior to publication. PD is provided through training and in-class coaching.	The costs for a school on average is $65,000 to $75,000 per year for 3 to 5 years (covers curricular materials, PD, and release time).	Research shows effectiveness in three areas studied: basic skills, cognitive skills, and affective behavior. Improvements are also shown for standardized tests and achievement.	National Institute for Direct Instruction (www.nigdi.org).
Enrichment Clusters	K–8	Enrichment clusters are groups of students who share common interests and who come together during specially designed time blocks. All teachers and teacher aides are involved in organizing the clusters, and numerous schools have also involved parents and other community members. Adult involvement in any particular cluster should be based on the same type of interest assessment that is used for students in selecting clusters of choice.	Requisite materials of each cluster dictate costs. Personnel costs are minimal, but after-school scheduling of clusters may affect this cost. Program costs have ranged from $0.50 to $5.00 per child per cluster session.	Attendance in school has been shown to improve on days in which clusters were held. Students develop stronger academic interests as a result of participation in clusters.	The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented (www.gifted.uconn.edu).
Professional development models
Comprehensive Professional Development Model	K–8	Comprehensive school reforms seek to provide schools and districts with sets of principles, guidelines, and materials that teachers and administrators can apply and adapt to bring about systemic reform. The model provides guidelines and procedures for extensive PD.	First-year costs are approximately $50,000 to $60,000. In general, costs can be covered by Title 1, state compensatory, and special education funds.		http://scov.csos.jhu.edu/crespar/crespar.html.
Different Ways of Knowing	K–8	The goals are to raise achievement and improve students’ attitudes toward their school. The approach is built around a variety of research bases, including the following: cognitive research, the effects of early and sustained intervention, and motivation research. The model is a multiyear professional development program for teachers and administrators, which provides an integrated approach to curriculum, instruction, assessment, and reporting.	The cost to schools in the first year is approximately $84,000 (covers PD, staff release time, and additional services). The average cost per school year for each year of the 3-year implementation is $35,000.	Four rigorous assessments of student achievement outcomes have been conducted showing the strongest gains in language arts, mathematics, and reading scores.	The Galef Institute (www.dwoknet.galef.org).

Note. PD = professional development; OTE = Onward to Excellence.