Table 4.

Hamsters as a model for viral hemorrhagic fevers.

Pathology and laboratory abnormalities	Virus
Spleen
Necrosis of white and red pulp, lymphoid zone	Punta Toro [83]
	Pirital [84,86,87]
	Marburg [73]
Mild lymphoid depletion of white pulp, early infection	Ebola [27]
Lymphoid necrosis and reactive hyperplasia	Gabek Forest [83]
	Yellow fever [81,82,85]
Destruction of tissue architecture, terminal phase	Ebola [27]
Mononuclear infiltrate expanding red pulp and obscuring lymphoid architecture	Andes [75]
Proliferation of reticuloendothelial tissue, macrophages in sinuses	Marburg [73]
Apoptosis of mononuclear phagocytic system and lymphocytes, terminal phase	Ebola [27]
Liver
Hepatocellular necrosis	Punta Toro [83]
Hepatocellular necrosis, hemorrhage and fibrin deposition, inflammation	Ebola [27]
Hepatocelullar necrosis, mild steatosis	Gabek Forest [83]
Lobular microvesicular steatosis, monocytic infiltration, necrosis	Yellow fever [81,82,85]
Apoptosis/necrosis with inflammatory infiltration	Pirital [84,86,87]
	Andes [75,76,79]
Interstitial mononuclear infiltration	Maporal [78]
Increased AST	Yellow Fever [81,85]
	Pirital [84,86]
Increased total bilirubin	Yellow Fever [81]
Increased ALT	Punta Toro [83]
	Gabek Forest [83]
	Yellow Fever [81,85]
	Pichinde [80]
	Pirital [84,86]
Lymph nodes
Lymphoid necrosis and reactive hyperplasia	Punta Toro [83]
Lymphoid necrosis and reactive hyperplasia, late infection	Ebola [27]
Lymphoid depletion and sinus hemorrhage, terminal phase	Ebola [27]
Follicular and plasma cell hyperplasia	Andes [76]
Proliferation of reticuloendothelial tissue, macrophages in sinuses	Marburg [73]
Histiocytosis and neutrophilia, early infection	Ebola [27]
Apoptosis of macrophages, dendritic cells, late infection	Ebola [27]
Lung
Alveolar hemorrhage with histiocytic infiltration	Yellow fever[81]
Alveolar edema, fibrin deposition, pleural effusion	Andes[75,79]
	Maporal [78]
Interstitial pneumonitis, diffuse or focal atelectasis, hemorrhagic necrosis	Punta Toro [83]
	Pirital [87]
Interstitial pneumonitis, hemorrhage	Gabek Fores [83]
	Pirital [84,86]
	Andes [76]
Interstitial pneumonitis, proliferation of vascular endothelium, capillary congestion, fibrin deposition	Marburg [73]
Kidney
Tubular necrosis	Yellow Fever [82,85]
Tubular epithelium degeneration, mononuclear cell infiltration, intracytoplasmic bodies, thickening of Bowman’s capsule, shrinkage of glomerular tufts	Marburg [73]
Glomerular necrosis	Gabek Forest [83]
Interstitial nephritis	Maporal [78]
Increased creatinine, blood urea nitrogen concentrations	Pirital [84,86]
Vascular dysregulation
Vascular leakage (edema, effusion)	Andes [75,79]
	Pichinde [80]
	Yellow fever [80]
	Maporal [78]
Decreased albumin concentrations	Pichinde [80]
	Yellow fever [81]
	Pirital [86]
Coagulopathy
Increased PT, aPTT	Yellow Fever [81]
	Pirital [84,86]
	Andes [76]
	Ebola [27]
Increased TT	Pirital [86]
	Ebola [27]
Early increased, then decreased fibrinogen concentrations Decreased fibrinogen concentrations, late infection Increased fibrinogen concentration	Yellow fever [81]
	Ebola [27]
	Andes [76]
	Pirital [84]
Increased D-dimer concentrations	Pirital [84]
Decreased protein C concentrations	Ebola [27]
Decreased protein S concentrations, late infection	Andes [76]
Thrombocytosis, mid or late infection	Pirital [84,86]
Thrombocytopenia, late infection	Andes [75]
	Yellow fever [81]
Hematological abnormalities
Early leukopenia then leukocytosis (primarily neutrophils)	Yellow fever [81]
Leukocytosis mid-to-late infection	Pichinde [80]
	Pirital [86]
	Andes [75]
Lymphopenia	Andes [75]
Cytokines
Increased blood cytokine concentrations, cross reactive mice antibodies	Pichinde [80]
	Andes [76]
Increased gene expression of cytokines	Andes [76]
	Yellow fever [85]
	Ebola [27]