Table 1. Phage control strategies in dairies discussed in this review.

Phage source	Control strategies	Application methodologies	Remarks
Factory environment	Factory and equipment design	Physical separation of plant areas
		Use of specific manufacturing areas for distinct technologies
		Use of filtered air under positive pressure
		Control of bioaerosols
	Process design	Optimization of the processing steps
	Sanitation	Use of effective sanitizers and disinfectants	Efficiency depending on phage susceptibility, phage initial load and suspension media
		Physical treatments (UV light irradiation, photocatalysis)
Raw milk	Refrigerated storage of raw ingredients
	Sanitation	Thermal treatments of raw materials and ingredients	Efficiency depending on phage susceptibility, phage initial load and suspension media
		High pressure technologies	Under laboratory tests only
	Direct vat-inoculation starters		Available for all types of processes
	Use of starter cultures with increased phage resistance	Bacteriophage-insensitive mutants	Simple methodology, without regulatory restrictions, valid to many LAB species
		Bacteriophage-resistant derivatives	Strains containing natural phage resistance mechanisms
		Genetically Modified Organisms	Available only in a few countries
	Culture rotation programs		Suitability for many types of processes excluding probiotic products. Increased phage diversity
Water as ingredient	Use of microbiologically safe water
Processed or recycled ingredients (whey, i.e.)	Adequate whey handling	Avoiding bioaerosol generation (closed drains, i.e.)
		Sanitation before recycling (thermal treatments)		Efficiency depending on phage susceptibility, phage initial load and suspension media
		Adequate disposal
		Limiting the recycling of the final waste within the plant
Lysogenic strains	Assessment of their absence when designing/selecting defined starter cultures