Table 2.

Element types and material properties for each of the FE model components

Component/material	Element formulation	Constitutive model	Modulus (MPa)	Poisson’s ratio	Cross-sectional area (mm2)	References
Bone cement	Hexahedral	Elastic	2,340	0.20		[35]
Ti6Al4V	Hexahedral	Elastic	114,000	0.33		[31]
CoCrMo	Hexahedral	Elastic	220,000	0.30		[32]
Cortical bone	Shell	Elastic	12,000	0.30		[34, 37]
Posterior elements	Hexahedral	Elastic	3,500	0.25		[34, 37]
Cancellous bone	Hexahedral	Elastic	300	0.20		[36]
Endplates	Shell	Elastic	1,000	0.20		[38]
Cartilage	Shell	Elastic	10	0.40		[37]
Intervertebral disc
Nucleus pulposus	Hexahedral	Fluid	1,667	Incompressible		[34, 37]
Inner annulus fibrosis	Hexahedral	Orthotropic Elastic	17.5/0.19/0.27	0.88/1.86/0.14		[33]
Outer annulus fibrosus	Hexahedral	Orthotropic Elastic	5.6/0.19/0.34	0.33/1.77/0.14		[33]
Ligaments
Anterior Longitudinal	Tension-only Shell	Elastic	20	0.30	38.0	[37]
Posterior longitudinal	Tension-only Shell	Elastic	70	0.30	20.0	[37]
Ligamentum flavum	Tension-only Shell	Elastic	50	0.30	60.0	[37]
Intertransverse	Tension-only Shell	Elastic	50	0.30	10.0	[37]
Interspinous	Tension-only Shell	Elastic	28	0.30	35.5	[37]
Supraspinous	Tension-only Shell	Elastic	28	0.30	35.5	[37]
Capsular	Tension-only Shell	Elastic	20	0.30	40.0	[37]