Table 3.

Identification of health care settings in which educational patient video clips have been utilised

Paper	Aim or hypothesis	Health care user	Educational purpose	Kirkpatrick level	Type of study	Outcome methodology	Conclusions
Using interactive video to add physical assessment data to computer based patient simulations [22]	Interactive video in patient simulations improves the learning experience [Not formally Stated in paper]	Basic Postgraduate Training	Overall Clinical Care	Learner Behaviour (level 3)	Comparative	Chart Review of interview and physical examination description of actual patients versus simulation performance	Good to fair agreement on overall comparison (kappa=0.72) and physical examinations (kappa=0.7)
The development of shared cognition in paediatric residents analysing a patient video versus a paper patient case [23]	Will supplementing a written case vignette by a PVC as opposed to an equivalent paper case increase shared cognition as measured by the frequency of collaborative concept link formation in the context of collaborative learning about movement disorders….?	Medical Students	Knowledge Gain	Leaner Knowledge (level 2b)	Cluster Randomised Control Trial	Identification and frequency of collaborative and individual concept links	The video group showed a significant increase (p<0.01) in collaborative concept links but not in individual concept links after watching the video
Enhancing diagnostic accuracy among non-experts through use of video cases [24]	(1) How does the level of diagnostic accuracy evolve through an interactive teamwork approach using PVCs?	Specialist Postgraduate Training	Knowledge Gain	Learner Knowledge (level 2b)	Repeated Measures Design	Analysis of frequency and of new diagnoses and new clinical reasoning processes as new information presented during review of PVC case.	i) New clinical reasoning processes were most frequent at first review of the PVC.
							ii) Frequency of new relevant diagnoses were stable at each step whereas less relevant diagnoses decreased.
	(2) Does the level of diagnostic accuracy differ between non-experts and experts?
							iii) Relevant clinical reasoning was significantly higher amongst non-experts compared with experts at the small group discussion and think aloud procedure with content expert.
Introduction of patient video clips into computer-based testing: Effects on item statistics and reliability estimates [25]	To compare the basic characteristics and reliability of questions using video-based vignettes to questions using analogous text-based vignettes.	Medical Students	Testing Methods	Learner Knowledge (level 2b)	Parallel test questions with cross-over of video and text descriptors.	Median Item statistics and reliability estimates for test items	Overall, video-based questions had comparable difficulty and discrimination compared to analogous text-based questions.
Video-based test questions: A novel means of evaluation [26]	Video-Based Test items are supported by students [Not formally stated by paper]	Undergraduate professionals allied to Medicine	Testing Methods	Learner reaction (level 1)	(1) Questionnaire utilising repeated measures ANOVAs	Students preference between video-based and multiple choice questions	Students thought video based questions deepened understanding and recommended video-based questions be used in future exams.
Video-based test questions: A novel means of evaluation [26]	Unclear	Undergraduate professionals allied to Medicine	Testing Methods	Learner Knowledge (level 2b)	(2) Observational comparative study (One group informed about video questions the other not)	Exam scores in 12 video-based items	Students informed about video clips correctly answered more video based items
A comparison of critical thinking in groups of third-year medical students in text, video, and virtual PBL case modalities [27]	Critical Thinking, as exemplified by the discourse among students during group discussion, differs among groups receiving the same case with the same facilitator in one of three formats.	Medical Students	Knowledge Gain	Learner Knowledge (level 2b)	Three way comparative study (face-2-face with text, face-2-face with video, virtual with video)	Critical thinking discourse analysis	The virtual groups had the highest critical-thinking ratio. Except for the problem-identification stage, the video groups had higher ratios that the text groups did.
Comparison of text and video cases in a postgraduate problem-based learning format [28]	The addition of a video case to written information would lead to a greater increase in the frequency of data exploration, theory building and evaluation and metareasoning than would be a achieved by a paper case.	Medical Students	Knowledge Gain	Learner Knowledge (level 2b)	Randomised comparative study of video versus text cases	Frequency of pre-defined clause categories	The verbal interaction showed statistically significant improvements in data exploration, theory building and theory evaluation after the video case
Use of animation-enhanced video clips for teaching abnormal breathing patterns [13]	To gather feedback regarding the Animated Breathing Pattern Videotape	3rd year Veterinary Students, House Officers and Faculty, Qualified Veterinarians	Patient Examination Skills	Leaner reaction (level 1)	Questionnaire	Usefulness and Satisfaction	Uniformly positive responses
Using web-based video to enhance physical examination skills in medical students [14]	To measure changes in first year students’ performance of physical examinations on standardized [sic] patients after implementation of a web-based curriculum	Medical Students	Patient Examination Skills	Learner Behaviour (level 3)	Before and After Cohort Outcome study	(i) Percent correct score in physical exam item checklist	Students on Web-based curriculum had higher level of competency and reduction in poor performance levels
						(ii)Mean score on physical exam process instrument
Teaching the plantar reflex [15]	To test to efficacy of video-tape in the evaluation of the planter response	Medical Students	Patient Examination Skills	Learner Behaviour (level 3)	Solomon Four Group Design – Two experimental and control groups (with and without entrance test)	Correct judgement of graded presence of clinical sign	Small non-significant difference between experimental and control groups [evidence of sampling error]. If analysis was restricted to students who performed an entrance test there was a statistical significance in favour of the video group.
A videotape-based training method for improving the detection of depression in residents of long-term care facilities [29]	Does a training programme involving video based scenarios improve nursing staffs’ detection of depression within long-term care facilities? [Not formally stated by the paper]	Professionals allied to Medicine	Overall Clinical Care	Learner Knowledge (level 2b) and Learner Satisfaction (level 3)	Parallel group delayed intervention design.	(I) Videotape vignette test	Significant increase in performance in the intervention group which was maintained for at follow up for both vignette and written test.
						(ii) Written Test
						(iii) Course evaluation questionnaire
							Good levels of satisfaction on questionnaire
Advantages of video trigger in problem-base learning [30]	The reasons behind preferences for video triggers or paper cases in students and facilitators who are accustomed to paper cases.	Medical Students	Knowledge Gain	Learner Reaction (level 1)	Questionnaire	Usefulness and Satisfaction	Video triggers were preferred by both students and facilitators over paper cases in Problem Based Learning
A triangulated approach to the assessment of teaching in childhood epilepsy [31]	Evaluation of participant perceptions of learning	Medical Student s and Basic Postgraduate Training	Knowledge Gain	Learner Reaction (level 1)	Triangulation Outcome Analysis	Participant assessment (rating scales, open ended questions and focus groups), Lecturer reflection and peer observations	Videos identified as the most useful and interesting teaching tool. Results cross-validated by lecturer and peer observations
How video cases should be used as authentic stimuli in problem-based medical education [32]	To examine students views on the value of video cases compared to text based cases.	Medical Students	Knowledge Gain	Learner Reaction (level 1)	Focus Groups	Thematic Analysis	Video generally valuable but benefit dependant on certain conditions.
Visual expertise in paediatric neurology [33]	To investigate visual attention and cognitive processes of clinicians of varying degrees of experience diagnosing authentic paediatric video case	Medical Students, Basic Postgraduate Training and Consultant CPD	Knowledge Gain	Learner Knowledge (level 2b) and Behaviour (Level 3)	Observational study	Eye-tracking data were analysed with verbal recordings.	More experienced clinicians were more accurate in visual diagnosis and spent more of their time looking at relevant areas
An evaluation of the effectiveness of a videotape programme on inter-observer reliability in outcome assessment for osteoarthritis [34]	Whether interobserver variability in senior medical students could be reduced in a group of patients with OA using only a single viewing of an instructional videotape.	Medical Students	Patient Examinations Skills	Learner Behaviour (level 3)	Before and After Study [Video intervention poorly described]	Change in mean values of previously described observer dependant measures per participant	Pre-standardization reliability coefficients were <0.80 for seven measures. Coefficients for the performance of knee goniometry were uniformly low. Following the intervention, all but four reliability coefficients were >/= 0.93.
						Reliability coeffecients for the group
An evaluation of the effectiveness of a videotape programme on inter-observer reliability in outcome assessment for fibromyalgia [16]	Whether interobserver variability in senior medical students could be reduced in a group of patients with fibromyalgia using only a single viewing of an instructional videotape.	Medical Students	Patient Examinations Skills	Learner Behaviour (level 3)	Before and After Study [Video intervention poorly described]	Change in mean values of previously described observer dependant measures per participant	Pre-standardization reliability coefficients were <0.80 for 8 measures. Following standardization all reliability coefficients, but one, approximated or exceeded 0.80
						Reliability coeffecients for the group
An evaluation of the effectiveness of a videotape programme on inter-observer reliability in outcome assessment for ankylosing spondylitis [18]	Whether interobserver variability in senior medical students could be reduced in a group of patients with ankylosing spondylitis using only a single viewing of an instructional videotape.	Medical Students	Patient Examinations Skills	Learner Behaviour (level 3)	Before and After Study [Video intervention poorly described]	Change in mean values of previously described observer dependant measures per participant	Pre-standardization reliability coefficients were < 0.80 for three measures. Following standardization 12 reliability coefficients exceeded 0.80. For the majority of measures pre-standardization reliability coefficients were high and no further improvement in reliability could be demonstrated
						Reliability coeffecients for the group
An evaluation of the effectiveness of a videotape programme on inter-observer reliability in outcome assessment for rheumatoid arthritis [17]	Whether interobserver variability in senior medical students could be reduced in a group of patients with rheumatoid arthritis using only a single viewing of an instructional videotape.	Medical Students	Patient Examinations Skills	Learner Behaviour (level 3)	Before and After Study [Video intervention poorly described]	Change in mean values of previously described observer dependant measures per participant	Pre-standardization reliability coefficients were >0.80 for all measures and remained above 0.80 following standardization except for one measure
						Reliability coeffecients for the group
Osteoarthritis antirheumatic drug trials: Effects of a standardized instructional videotape on the reliability of observer-dependent dependent outcome measures [35]	Whether interobserver variability in consultants could be reduced in a group of patients with OA using only a single viewing of an instructional videotape.	Consultant CPD	Patient Examination Skills	Learner Behaviour (level 3)	Before and After Study [Video intervention poorly described]	Change in mean values of previously described observer dependant measures per participant	Prestandardization reliability coefficients were >0.80 for all measures and remained above 0.80 following the intervention
						Reliability coeffecients for the group
Fibromyalgia antirheumatic drug trials: Effects of a standardized instructional videotape on the reliability of observer-dependent outcome measures [19]	Whether interobserver variability in consultants could be reduced in a group of patients with fibromyalgia using only a single viewing of an instructional videotape.	Consultant CPD	Patient Examinations Skills	Learner Behaviour (level 3)	Before and After Study [Video intervention poorly described]	Change in mean values of previously described observer dependant measures per participant	Prestandardization reliability coefficients were <0.80 for 8 measures. Following standardization all reliability coefficients approximated to or exceeded 0.80.
						Reliability coeffecients for the group
Rheumatoid arthritis antirheumatic drug trials: Effects of a standardized instructional videotape on the reliability of observer-dependent outcome measures [20]	Whether interobserver variability in consultants could be reduced in a group of patients with rheumatoid arthritis using only a single viewing of an instructional videotape.	Consultant CPD	Patient Examinations Skills	Learner Behaviour (level 3)	Before and After Study [Video intervention poorly described]	Change in mean values of previously described observer dependant measures per participant	Prestandardization reliability coefficients were >0.80 for all measures and remained above 0.80 following standardization
						Reliability coeffecients for the group
Ankylosing spondylitis antirheumatic drug trials: Effects of a standardized instructional viddeotape on the reliability of observer-dependent outcome measures [21]	Whether interobserver variability in consultants could be reduced in a group of patients with ankylosing spondylitis using only a single viewing of an instructional videotape.	Consultant CPD	Patient Examinations Skills	Learner Behaviour (level 3)	Before and After Study [Video intervention poorly described]	Change in mean values of previously described observer dependant measures per participant	Prestandardization reliability coefficients were <0.80 for three measures. Following standardization 12 reliability coefficients exceeded 0.80
						Reliability coeffecients for the group