TABLE 1.
Characteristics of participants without a history of depression according to DepSs over 5 y of follow-up (n = 4215)1
| Recurrent DepSs over 5 y of follow-up |
||||||
| Men (n = 3155) |
Women (n = 1060) |
|||||
| Characteristics at phase 7 | No (n = 2991) | Yes (n = 64) | P | No (n = 964) | Yes (n = 96) | P |
| Sociodemographic factors | ||||||
| Age (y) | 61.0 ± 5.92 | 59.7 ± 5.8 | 0.01 | 61.0 ± 5.91 | 60.8 ± 6.2 | 0.77 |
| Ethnicity (white) (%) | 96.7 | 89.0 | <0.001 | 93.1 | 86.5 | <0.001 |
| SES (low) (%) | 2.3 | 6.7 | <0.001 | 22.8 | 28.1 | 0.02 |
| Retired (yes) (%) | 51.1 | 48.8 | 0.56 | 54.7 | 57.3 | 0.62 |
| Living alone (yes) (%) | 15.4 | 26.2 | <0.001 | 39.7 | 52.1 | 0.02 |
| Health behavior factors | ||||||
| Smoking habits (current smokers) (%) | 6.1 | 10.4 | 0.09 | 8.6 | 11.5 | 0.40 |
| Physical activity (low) (%) | 20.7 | 32.9 | <0.001 | 26.8 | 38.5 | 0.03 |
| Total energy intake (kcal/d) | 2258 ± 634 | 2340 ± 788 | 0.19 | 1996 ± 594 | 2121 ± 732 | 0.11 |
| Health status factors | ||||||
| Type 2 diabetes (yes) (%) | 8.3 | 11.0 | 0.23 | 9.1 | 10.4 | 0.68 |
| Central obesity (yes) (%) | 22.2 | 29.3 | 0.03 | 43.9 | 46.9 | 0.57 |
| History of CAD (yes) (%) | 7.0 | 10.4 | 0.11 | 4.7 | 10.4 | 0.01 |
| Hypertension (yes) (%) | 35.7 | 39.0 | 0.33 | 36.4 | 37.5 | 0.83 |
| HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) | 1.49 ± 0.39 | 1.45 ± 0.38 | 0.23 | 1.86 ± 0.48 | 1.72 ± 0.46 | 0.009 |
| Use of lipid-lowering drugs (yes) (%) | 11.6 | 14.6 | 0.24 | 9.1 | 10.4 | 0.68 |
| Cognitive impairment (yes) (%) | 10.9 | 18.9 | 0.001 | 12.7 | 18.7 | 0.09 |
| AHEI scores (points) | ||||||
| At phase 7 | 50.5 ± 11.9 | 50.0 ± 14.1 | 0.66 | 54.6 ± 12.6 | 49.0 ± 11.9 | <0.001 |
| At phase 3 | 49.68 ± 11.5 | 49.3 ± 12.2 | 0.75 | 53.9 ± 12.9 | 51.4 ± 12.6 | 0.06 |
| Absolute 10-y change | 0.90 ± 10.9 | 0.60 ± 12.2 | 0.77 | −0.75 ± 11.3 | −3.0 ± 9.7 | 0.002 |
Recurrent DepS cases were defined as participants who had DepSs at both phases 7 and 9 and were compared with participants with no recurrent DepSs who were defined as individuals with an absence of DepSs at both phases 7 and 9 or who had DepSs in only one of the 2 phases (with DepSs cases defined as participants who had a CES-D score ≥16 or were using antidepressive drugs). Characteristics of participants included sociodemographic variables that consisted of sex, age (y), skin color (white, South Asian, and black) who were living alone (no compared with yes), SES (low, intermediate, or high), and retirement status (yes or no). Health behaviors considered were smoking habits (never, former, or current) and physical activity (inactive, moderately active, or active). Physical activity was assessed by using a questionnaire that included 20 items on the frequency and duration of participation in different physical activities (eg, walking, cycling, and sports) that were used to compute hours per week at each intensity level. Participants were classified as active (>2.5 h/wk of moderate physical activity or >1 h/wk of vigorous physical activity), inactive (<1 h/wk of moderate physical activity and <1 h/wk of vigorous physical activity), or moderately active (if not active or inactive) (21). Baseline health status was based on CAD (ie, clinically verified nonfatal myocardial infarction or definite angina); hypertension (systolic or diastolic blood pressure ≥40 or ≥90 mm Hg, respectively, or the use of antihypertensive drugs); HDL cholesterol, use of lipid-lowering drugs, central obesity (waist circumference >102 cm in men and >88 cm in women); and cognitive impairment (defined by a score ≤27 in the Mini-Mental State Examination) (22). Except for HDL cholesterol (mmol/L), all other health status covariates were dichotomized as yes or no. For P values, the chi-square test for categorical variables and ANOVA for quantitative variables were used to compare characteristics according to recurrent, nonrecurrent, and no DepSs. AHEI, Alternative Healthy Eating Index; CAD, coronary artery disease; DepS, depressive symptom; SES, socioeconomic status.
Mean ± SD (all such values).