Table 2.

Measures of children’s cognitive function and behavioral and affective problems at age 5 years and comorbid psychiatric problems at age 12 years

	Description	Respondent	Mean (SD) %	N
Cognitive Function at Age 5 Years
IQ	Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) Revised. (Wechsler, 1989) Children were administered two subtests: vocabulary and block design. IQ scores were prorated, following procedures described by Sattler (1992).	Child	100 (15.0)	2,210
Executive function	Children were administered three executive functions tests: mazes (Grodzinsky & Diamond, 1992) is a WPPSI subtest; day night (Gerstadt et al., 1994) is a nonverbal analogue of the Stroop task; sentence working memory, based on the Baddeley model of working memory (Baddely, 1986: Hughes et al., 2000) requires the child to hold one (or more) item in active working memory while processing necessary information for the generation of the second (etc.,) item. Children’s scores on the three tests were averaged and standardized.	Child	100 (15.0)	2,212
Theory of mind	Battery of theory of mind tasks (Hughes et al., 2000, 2005) administered in a set order of increasing difficulty. The test questions tapped children’s ability to attribute a first-order false belief to a story character, to make inferences from an attributed false belief, and to attribute a second-order false belief to a story character. Children’s responses were summed and standardized.	Child	100 (15.0)	2,223
Behavioral and Affective Problems at Age 5 Years
Child temperament Lack of control Approach Inhibition	After the age 5 home visit, examiners rated each child on 25 different behavioral characteristics that assess children’s style of approach and response to the testing session and to the home visit more generally. Each behavioral characteristic was defined in explicit terms and the examiner evaluated whether each characteristic was (0) not at all, (1) somewhat, or (2) definitely characteristic of the child. As described by Caspi et al. (1995), these ratings form three temperament scales: “lack of control” indexes emotional lability, restlessness, short attention span, and negativism; “approach” indexes quick adjustment to new situations, friendliness, self-confidence, and self-reliance; “inhibition” indexes flat affect, passivity, shyness, and fear.	Interviewer	0 (1) 0 (1) 0 (1)	2,225 2,224 2,225
Impulsivity	Caregivers and teachers each reported on symptoms of impulsivity from DSM IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).	Mother Teacher	0 (1) 0 (1)	2,230 2,084
Externalizing problems	Children’s internalizing and externalizing problems were evaluated by caregivers and teachers using the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (Achenbach, 2008; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001).	Mother Teacher Mother	0 (1) 0 (1) 0 (1)	2,230 2,089 2,230
Internalizing problems		Teacher	0 (1)	2,090
Children’s Comorbid Psychiatric Problems at Age 12 Years
Conduct disorder	DSM-IV conduct disorder Items (American Psychiatric Association, 1994)	Child	0 (1)	2,120
Depression symptoms	Children’s Depression Inventory (Kovacs, 1992)	Child	0 (1)	2,130
Anxiety symptoms	Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (March et al., 1997)	Child	0 (1)	2,130
Psychosis symptoms	Psychosis Symptoms Scale (Polanczyk et al., 2010)	Child	0 (1)	2,127
Harsh Treatment
Physical maltreatment	History of physical maltreatment was determined from mother reports in interviews when children were age 5, 7, and 10 years using the reliable standardized clinical protocol from the Multi-Site Child Development Project, a protocol designed to enhance mothers’ comfort with reporting valid child maltreatmen information while also meeting researchers’ legal and ethical responsibilities for reporting (Dodge et al., 1990). Under the UK Children Act our responsibility was to secure intervention if maltreatment was current and ongoing. Such intervention on behalf of E-Risk families was carried out I with parental cooperation in all but one case. Five percent of E-Risk children had a positive history of physical maltreatment. Of this group, 11% were sexually abused by an adult and 89% were physically harmed (including punished by being burned with matches, injured from neglectful or abusive care, formally registered with a child protection team for physical abuse). The abuser was the child’s mother in 21% of cases, another adult family member (biological father, stepfather, grandparents, uncles, adult siblings) in 52% of cases, or an adult nonfamily member (mothers’ boyfriend, neighbor, family friend, baby sitter) in 27% of cases.	Mother	5%	2,232
Maternal negative expressed emotion	Maternal negative expressed emotion was assessed using 5-min speech samples eliciting expressed emotion from the mother collected at the age 5 and 10 home visits. Speech samples were audiotaped and audiotapes were coded by two independent blind raters. Scores were averaged across years. Maternal negative expressed emotion (coded on a 0–5 scale) is a global measure of the whole speech sample, indexing negativism expressed in the interview about the child (Caspi et al., 2004).	Mother (coded by trained raters)	1.46 (0.81)	2,220