Table 1.
Factor loadings from first- and second-order strict invariance models, and Cronbach alphas
|
Second-order factor |
(α mothers, α fathers) |
1st-order |
2nd-order |
|---|---|---|---|
|
First-order factor |
(α mothers, α fathers) |
model |
model |
| #. Item | |||
|
Positive involvement in child eating |
(.88, .91) |
|
|
|
Monitor/limit high-calorie foods |
(.84, .90) |
|
.75 |
| 03. How often do you limit the amount of high-fat foods (fried foods, French fries) your child eats? |
|
.58 |
.57 |
| 04. How often do you keep track of the sweets (candy, ice cream, cake, pies, pastries) your child eats? |
|
.63 |
.63 |
| 10. How often do you encourage your child to eat healthy foods before less healthy ones? |
|
.60 |
.60 |
| 14. How often do you keep track of the snack food (potato chips, Doritos, cheese puffs) that your child eats? |
|
.70 |
.70 |
| 18. How often do you limit the amount of sweets (candy, ice cream, cake or pastries) that your child eats? |
|
.67 |
.67 |
| 25. How often do you keep track of the high-fat foods (fried foods, French fries) that your child eats? |
|
.72 |
.72 |
| 34. How often do you limit the amount of junk foods your child can eat? |
|
.74 |
.75 |
| 35. How often do you keep track of the sugary drinks (soda/pop, Kool-Aid) your child drinks? |
|
.72 |
.73 |
| 48. How often do you limit the amount of soda your child drinks? |
|
.55 |
.55 |
| 62. How often do you restrict the amount of fattening food your child can eat? |
|
.58 |
.57 |
|
Encourage/compliment healthy eating |
(.76, .82) |
|
.91 |
| 08. How often do you say something positive about the food that your child is eating? |
|
.51 |
.52 |
| 15. How often do you tell your child how tasty a new food is? |
|
.58 |
.58 |
| 19. How often do you reason with your child to get him/her to eat (for example, Milk is good for your health because it will make you strong)? |
|
.54 |
.53 |
| 32. How often do you tell your child that healthy food tastes good? |
|
.61 |
.62 |
| 39. How often do you compliment your child for eating food (for example, What a good boy! You're eating your vegetables)? |
|
.60 |
.59 |
| 49. How often do you encourage your child to eat by arranging the food to make it more interesting (for example, making smiley faces on the pancakes)? |
|
.43 |
.43 |
| 52. How often do you encourage your child to try to eat healthy foods such as vegetables? |
|
.66 |
.67 |
| 63. How often do you keep track of the servings of fresh fruits and vegetables your child is eating? |
|
.58 |
.56 |
|
Encourage a variety of new foods |
(.70, .64) |
|
.72 |
| 21. How often do you encourage your child to try new foods? |
|
.75 |
.72 |
| 42. How often do you encourage your child to eat a variety of foods? |
|
.67 |
.70 |
|
Ask child what he/she ate † |
(.55, .74) |
|
.56 |
| 45. How often do you ask your child what he/she ate during the day? |
|
.64 |
.63 |
| 55. How often do you find out how much your child ate during the day? |
|
.79 |
.80 |
|
Provide small servings |
(.39, .50) |
|
.56 |
| 44. How often do you give your child small servings of food at meals? |
|
.50 |
.46 |
| 60. How often do you add small servings of new foods to your child's plate? |
|
.61 |
.66 |
|
Pressure to eat |
(.86, .84) |
|
|
|
Tell child to eat all food on plate |
(.84, .81) |
|
.87 |
| 05. How often do you try to make your child eat all of the food on his/her plate? |
|
.58 |
.57 |
| 43. How often do you tell your child he/she has to finish eating before he/she can go play or do something else? |
|
.53 |
.53 |
| 46. How often do you remind your child to finish eating? |
|
.55 |
.55 |
| 56. How often do you tell your child to eat everything on the plate? |
|
.81 |
.82 |
| 61. How often do you tell your child if he/she doesn't eat, he/she can't watch TV? |
|
.55 |
.55 |
| 64. How often do you tell your child he/she can't leave the table until he/she finishes? |
|
.75 |
.74 |
| 66. How often do you insist that your child eat his/her meal? |
|
.71 |
.71 |
|
Require child to eat even if not hungry |
(.72, .69) |
|
.81 |
| 16. If your child says, I'm not hungry, how often do you try to get him/her to eat anyway? |
|
.55 |
.59 |
| 26. If your child eats only a small amount, how often do you try to get him/her to eat more? |
|
.79 |
.76 |
| 36. When he/she says he/she is finished eating, how often do you try to get your child to eat one more (two more, etc.) bites of food? |
|
.62 |
.62 |
|
Use of food to control behavior |
(.78, .75) |
|
|
|
Use food to control emotions |
(.78, .72) |
|
.71 |
| 09. How often do you give your child something to eat or drink if he/she is cranky or grumpy, even if you think he/she isn't hungry? |
|
.50 |
.51 |
| 20. How often do you give your child something to eat or drink if he/she is bored, even if you think he/she isn't hungry? |
|
.63 |
.64 |
| 31. How often do you give your child something to eat or drink if he/she is upset, even if you think he/she isn't hungry? |
|
.64 |
.64 |
| 41. How often do you give your child something to eat or drink if he/she is sad, even if you think he/she isn't hungry? |
|
.64 |
.62 |
| 51. How often do you give your child something to eat or drink to make him/her happy, even if you think he/she isn't hungry? |
|
.66 |
.65 |
|
Use food as reward |
(.65, .63) |
|
.83 |
| 02. How often do you offer your child his/her favorite foods in exchange for good behavior? |
|
.52 |
.52 |
| 12. How often do you offer sweets (candy, ice cream, cake, pastries) to your child as a reward for good behavior? |
|
.56 |
.56 |
| 33. How often do you tell your child that he/she has to finish dinner if he/she wants a sweet? |
|
.60 |
.60 |
| 53. How often do you tell your child if he/she finishes the meal, he/she can have a sweet or a soda? |
|
.62 |
.62 |
|
Restriction of amount of food |
(.77, .70) |
|
|
|
Encourage child to eat less |
(.78, .72) |
|
.76 |
| 24. How often do you encourage your child to eat less? |
|
.75 |
.75 |
| 28. How often have you put your child on a diet to control his/her weight? |
|
.49 |
.50 |
| 38. How often do you tell your child he's/she's eaten enough? |
|
.72 |
.73 |
| 54. If your child eats more than usual at one meal, how often do you try to restrict his/her eating at the next meal? |
|
.65 |
.65 |
|
Allow child to control snacking and second servings |
(.64, .58) |
|
−.57 |
| 01. How often do you let your child eat whatever he/she wants? |
|
.44 |
.46 |
| 30. How often do you allow your child to eat snacks whenever he/she wants? |
|
.58 |
.53 |
| 37. How often do you let your child have seconds? |
|
.50 |
.47 |
| 50. If your child asks for a snack, how often do you give it to him/her? |
|
.65 |
.70 |
| 59. How often does your child get his/her own snack without asking first? |
|
.32 |
.33 |
|
Limit eating between meals‡ |
(.48, .38) |
|
.71 |
| 07. How often do you keep your child from eating between meals? |
|
.42 |
.38 |
| 13. How often do you limit how much your child can eat his/her favorite foods? |
|
.36 |
.38 |
| 57. How often do you limit the number of snacks your child eats? |
|
.60 |
.64 |
|
N/A |
(.62, .61) |
|
|
|
Allow child to choose meal menu |
|
|
|
| 11. At dinner, how often do you let your child choose the foods he/she wants from what is served? |
|
.54 |
n/a |
| 17. How often do you ask your child what he/she wants for dinner? |
|
.49 |
n/a |
| 22. If your child does not like what is being served, how often do you make something else? |
|
.46 |
n/a |
| 65. How often do you try to serve the meals your child likes? |
|
.66 |
n/a |
|
N/A |
|
|
|
|
Allow child to leave table without finishing meal |
(.64, .59) |
|
|
| 06. How often do you tell your child to leave whatever he/she doesn't want to eat? |
|
.56 |
n/a |
| 27. How often do you tell your child he/she doesn't have to eat something he/she doesn't like? |
|
.54 |
n/a |
| 40. How often do you allow your child to leave the table when he/she is full, even if your family is not done eating? |
|
.38 |
n/a |
| 47. How often do you let your child leave food on his/her plate? | .68 | n/a |
Note: Both first- and second-order factor models had cross-parental equality constraints imposed on all corresponding parameter estimates; Second-order factor loadings are underlined; † first-order factor 'Ask child what he/she ate' had a cross-loading = .35 on second-order factor 'Restriction of amount of food'; ‡ first-order factor 'Limit eating between meals' had a cross-loading = .50 on second-order factor 'Positive involvement in child eating'.