a, b, Schematic of experiment (a) and CPP apparatus (b). I.N.P. and I.P. indicate initially non-preferred and preferred chambers, respectively (c, schematic, ‘pre-test’). c, Top: absolute time (s) in each chamber before (open bars; ‘pre’) versus after (filled bars; ‘post’) conditioning for the experimental group. Train drug indicates CNO or saline paired with the indicated chamber. Bottom: schematic of experimental design. Cham., chamber. d, Time in I.N.P. chamber for experimental (replotted from panel c for direct comparison) and control groups. **P< 0.01; ***P< 0.001; NS, not significant. See Supplementary Note 10 for F values and Supplementary Fig. 13. e–i, Difference scores ((time in indicated chamber after training) – (time in chamber before training)) for experimental (e, n=15) and control (f, g, h, i, n=9, 6, 8, 10, respectively) groups. j, Comparison of mean difference scores for the I.N.P. chamber for the experimental (e) and the pooled control (f, g, h, i) groups. There was no significant difference between control groups. *<P,0.05, ** P< 0.01; *** P< 0.001.