Table 1.
(A) Diagnostic biomarkers (criteria i, iv, v, and vi) | ||
---|---|---|
(1) Genetic-immunogenetic | ||
HLA-DRB1*1501 | +++ Risk for MS | See also B, E |
DR3 and DR4 haplotypes | ++ Risk for MS | |
HLA-DRB1*04 | ++ Risk for MS | |
HLA-DRB1*0401 | + Risk for high familial autoimmunity in MS patients | See also F |
HLA-DQ1*0102 | + Risk for MS, in coexistence with HLA-DRB1*1501 | |
HLA-DPB1*0501 | + Risk for opticospinal MS | |
HLA-DPB1*0301 | + Risk for opticospinal MS | |
IL2RA and IL7RA polymorphisms | + Risk for MS | |
EVI5, CD58, KIAA0350, and RPL5 polymorphisms | +/− Risk for MS | |
(2) Laboratorial | ||
OCB IgG | +++ But with low specificity | See also E |
KFLC | +++ But with low specificity | See also E |
MRZ reaction | +++ Higher specificity than OCB IgG | See also E, F |
Anti BRRF2, anti EBNA-1 | ++ | See also B, C |
Anti MBP 48–70 and 85–170 | + | See also B, E |
Anti MBP 43–68 and 146–170 | + Differential diagnosis with OND's | See also B, E |
MBP/MOG conformational epitopes antibodies | + But low specificity | See also B, E, F |
VEGF-A | + Lower CSF levels in all disease forms, but low specificity | See also D, E |
Vitamin D | +++ Lower levels, higher risk for MS | See also C, F |
TRECs | + Lower serum levels in all disease forms, but low specificity | See also B |
CSF levels of lipocalin 2 | + Higher CSF levels in MS, but low specificity | See also F |
AR | +++ Differential diagnosis of MS and NMO | See also C, E |
NO and NO metabolites | + Higher CSF and serum levels in MS, but low specificity | See also C, E |
NF-L | ++ Higher CSF levels in MS patients | See also C, F |
NAA | +++ Differential diagnosis of RRMS and NMO | See also D, E |
GFAP | +++ Differential diagnosis of MS and NMO | See also C, E |
S100B | + Differential diagnosis of MS and NMO | See also C, E |
Nogo-A | ++ For MS forms with prominent neurodegenerative element | See also D |
(3) Imaging | ||
Contrast-enhanced T1 lesions | +++ | See also C |
Hyperintense T2-weighted lesions | +++ | See also C, D, E |
Corpus callosum DTI abnormalities | ++ Early diagnostic biomarker | See also E |
MRS findings (glutamate/choline) | +++ | See also C, D, E |
PET | ++ But still experimental | |
EPs Motor EPs VEMPs |
+++ +++ Spinal cord syndrome at presentation +++ Brainstem dysfunction |
See also C, D, E |
SSR | ++ Autonomic dysfunction assessment in MS patients | See also E |
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(B) Biomarkers of phenotypical expression (criteria ii, iv, v, and vi) | ||
| ||
(1) Genetic-immunogenetic | ||
HLA-DRB1*1501 | +++ Early disease onset | See also A, E |
HLA-DRB1*1501 | + Risk for cognitive decline | |
HLA-DRB1*01 | ++ Protection against malignant disease form | |
ApoE ε4 | ++ Greater risk for mental disorders | |
(2) Laboratorial | ||
OCB IgM against myelin lipids | +/− Aggressive disease course | See also E |
EBV antibodies | + Early disease onset | See also A, C |
Anti-MBP | +++ ADEM-like onset in childhood MS | See also A, E |
Anti-MOG | +++ Childhood MS, ADEM, isolated optic neuritis, anti-AQP4 (−) NMO | See also A, E, F |
rMOG index | +++ Progressive disease forms | |
IL-6 serum levels | +++ Age at onset | See also C |
TRECs | ++ Lower levels PPMS | See also A |
Amyloid-β (1–42) | ++ Lower levels, higher risk for mental disorders | |
(3) Imaging | ||
UCCA atrophy | +++ Progressive disease forms | See also E |
NAGM DTI abnormalities | +++ Progressive disease forms | |
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(C) Biomarkers of demyelination-neuroinflammation-relapse (criteria i, ii, iii, iv, v, and vi) | ||
| ||
(1) Genetic-immunogenetic | ||
TOB1 | +++ Underexpression, higher Th1 and Th17 percentage | See also E |
(2) Laboratorial | ||
EBV antibodies | + Higher inflammatory activity | See also A, B |
CXCL13 | ++ Mobilizes B-cells, T-helper cells | |
CXCL12 | +/− Neuroprotection against inflammation in EAE/ experimental | |
IFN-γ/TNF-a | +++ Th1 immune response | |
IL-1 levels imbalance | + Triggering factor for neuroinflammation | |
IL-6 | +++ B-cell and T-cell immunity link, Th17 immune response triggering factor ++ Correlation with relapse frequency in female MS patients |
See also B |
IL-10 −592 position polymorphisms | ++ Regulation of CNS autoimmunity | |
IL-15 | ++ BBB disruption, enhanced CD8(+) T cytotoxicity | |
IL-33 | + Increase in IFN-γ and IL-17 in mice EAE | |
sICAM-1 | ++ Higher levels, higher inflammatory activity +++ Higher levels in NMO than MS—marker of BBB disruption |
See also F |
sVCAM-1 | +++ Higher levels in NMO than MS—marker of BBB disruption | See also F |
Laminin 411 | ++ TH-17 enhancement | |
α4 Integrin | ++ Correlation with gadolinium-enhanced lesions during CIS | See also E, F |
Osteopontin | ++ Serum and CSF elevation during relapse | |
Fetuin-A | +++ Overexpression in active demyelinating lesions | See also F |
Vitamin D | +++ High levels, anti-inflammatory role—lower radiological disease activity | See also A, F |
CSF mature B-cells/plasma-blasts | ++ Bigger accumulation, higher inflammatory activity | |
CXCR3 | ++ Helps T-cells to enter the brain | |
CX(3)CR1 | ++ CD4(+)CD28(−) cytotoxic cells biomarker | |
CSF CCR2(+)CCR5(+) T cells | +++ Increase during MS relapse—osteopontin enhancement | |
CD56 Bright NK | ++ Remission phase | |
AR | +++ Biomarker of BBB disruption | See also A, E |
MMP-9 | ++ Higher CSF levels during relapse | |
Ninjurin-1 | ++ Upregulation in active demyelinating lesions | |
MBP and fragments | +++ Higher CSF levels during relapse | See also F |
αB-Crystalline | +++ Over-expression in active demyelinating lesions | |
NO and metabolites | ++ | See also A, E |
7-Ketocholesterol | ++ | |
Glutamate | +++ Higher levels in active demyelinating lesions | |
Cystine/glutamate antiporter | + Over-expression in active demyelinating lesions | |
NF-L | +++ Higher CSF levels, especially the 3rd week after relapse onset | See also A, F |
GFAP | ++ Higher levels during relapse | See also A, E |
S100B | +/− Higher CSF levels during MS/NMO relapse | See also A, E |
N-CAM | + CSF elevation at remission onset | |
BDNF | ++ Lower levels inhibit demyelination and axonal loss | See also D, E, F |
(3) Imaging | ||
Contrast-enhanced T1 lesions | +++ Active lesions | See also A |
Hyperintense T2-weighted lesions | ++ Combination of different mechanisms | See also A, D, E |
MTR decrease | + Demyelination and axonal loss combined | See also D |
DTI abnormalities | ++ Combination of different mechanisms | See also D, E |
MRS findings (especially changes in glutamate and choline) | +++ Active lesions | See also A, D, E |
DTS | ++ Promising but still experimental | See also D |
EP's delayed conduction | ++ Demyelination biomarker | See also A, D, E |
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(D) Biomarkers of axonal loss-neurodegeneration (criteria i, iv, v, and vi) | ||
| ||
(1) Laboratorial | ||
VEGF-A | ++ Lower levels, higher risk for neurodegeneration | See also A, E |
14-3-3 | +/− Axonal loss | |
NAA | +++ Axonal loss | See also A, E |
BDNF | ++ Lower levels inhibit demyelination and axonal loss | See also C, E, F |
Nogo-A | +++ Higher CSF levels, failure in axonal repair | See also A |
(2) Imaging | ||
RNFL thinning | +++ Axonal loss in the optic nerve | See also E, F |
Hyperintense T2-weighted lesions | ++ Combination of different mechanisms | See also A, C, E |
Black holes | +++ Axonal loss | See also E |
MTR decrease | ++ Demyelination and axonal loss combined | See also C |
DTI abnormalities | ++ Combination of different mechanisms | See also C, E |
MRS findings (especially NAA) | ++ | See also A, C, E |
DTS | +++ Promising but still not widely accessible | See also C |
Visual and motor EPs | ++ | See also A, C, D |
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(E) Prognostic biomarkers—biomarkers of disability progression (criteria ii, iv, v, vi, and viii) | ||
| ||
(1) Genetic-immunogenetic | ||
HLA-DRB1*1501 | +/− Early progression from RRMS to SPMS | See also A, B |
HLA-DRB1*1501 | + Worst brain atrophy measures | |
HLA-DQB1*0301 | + Worst brain atrophy measures | |
HLA-DQB1*0602 | + Worst whole and gray matter atrophy measures | |
TOB1 | +++ Early conversion from CIS to CDMS | See also C |
(2) Laboratorial | ||
OCB IgG | +++ Conversion from CIS to CDMS | See also A |
KFLC | +++ Conversion from CIS to CDMS | See also A |
OCB IgM | +/− Bad prognostic biomarker | See also B |
MRZ reaction | +++ Conversion from CIS to CDMS | See also A, F |
Anti-MBP | +/− Conversion from CIS to CDMS | See also A, B |
Anti-MOG | +/− Conversion from CIS to CDMS | See also A, B, F |
AR | ++ Marker of clinical severity in NMO | See also A, C |
VEGF-A | ++ Lower levels, progression from RRMS to SPMS | See also A, D |
NO and NO metabolites | ++ Higher CSF levels, longer relapses/higher disability progression rates | See also A, C |
NF-H | +++ Higher CSF levels, progressive forms/bad prognostic biomarker | |
NF-H and tau | +++ Combined high CSF levels, conversion from CIS to CDMS | |
Tubulin/actin | ++ Higher CSF levels, progressive forms/worst disability scores | |
NAA | +++ Lower CSF levels, progressive forms/worst disability scores | See also A, D |
GFAP | ++ Higher CSF levels, progressive MS forms/worst disability scores +++ Disability progression in NMO |
See also A,C |
S100B | + Disability progression in NMO | See also A,C |
BDNF | ++ Lower CSF levels in SPMS patients | See also C, D, F |
Unblocked α4 integrin | + Prognostic factor of risk for PML | See also C, F |
(3) Imaging | ||
RNFL thinning | + Correlation with brain atrophy measures and disease progression | See also D, F |
Hyperintense T2-weighted lesions | +/− | See also A, C, D |
Black holes | +/− | See also D |
Whole brain atrophy measures | ++ Worsening rates at MS onset, prognostic biomarker of disability after 8 years | |
Gray matter atrophy measures | +++ Higher worsening rates, progressive forms/early CIS conversion to RRMS | |
UCCA atrophy | ++ Progressive forms, good correlation with EDSS, bad prognostic in RRMS | See also B |
DTI abnormalities | +++ Early prognostic biomarker of relapse | See also C, D |
Corpus callosum DTI abnormalities | +++ Bad prognostic biomarker | See also A |
Spinal cord DTI abnormalities | +++ Good correlation with EDSS scores | |
Early MRS abnormalities | ++ Bad prognostic biomarker | See also A, C, D |
Combined EPs | +++ Good prognostic biomarker, especially for benign disease forms | See also A, C, D |
SSR | ++ Correlation with higher EDSS scores | See also A |
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(F) Biomarkers of therapeutical response (criteria i, iv, v, vi, and vii) | ||
| ||
(1) Genetic-immunogenetic | ||
HLA-DRB1*0401, 0408, 1601 | +++ Higher risk for developing neutralizing antibodies against IFN-B | See also A |
(2) Laboratorial | ||
MRZ reaction | ++ B-cell immunity targeted therapy | See also A, E |
Anti-MOG | ++ B-cell immunity targeted therapy | See also A, B, E |
Fetuin-A | +++ Decreased CSF levels in Natalizumab responders | See also C |
MBP | +++ Decrease in CSF levels in methylprednizolone responders | See also C |
CSF lipocalin 2 | ++ Decreased CSF levels in Natalizumab responders | See also A |
Unblocked α4 integrin | +++ Therapeutical response to Natalizumab | See also C, E |
NF-L | +++ Normalized CSF levels in Natalizumab responders | See also A, C |
BDNF | +++ CSF elevation in Glatiramer Acetate responders | See also C, D, E |
TRAIL | ++ Serum levels good predictors of response in IFN-B | |
MxA | ++ Serum levels good predictors of response in IFN-B | |
sVCAM | ++ CSF alterations in IFN-B responders | See also C |
Th17 immune profil | +/− Immune response exacerbation by IFN-B | |
Vitamin D | +++ Increased levels in IFN-B responders | See also A, C |
sICAM-1 | + Lower levels in Cladribine responders | See also C |
sE-Selectin | + Lower levels in Cladribine responders | |
(3) Imaging | ||
RNFL | +++ Biomarker of therapeutical efficacy for several agents | See also D, E |
Classification of biomarkers. +++ very strong correlation, ++ strong correlation, + modest correlation, and +/− controversial correlation. Criteria used for classification., (i) Biological rationale; (ii) clinical rationale; (iii) predictability of disease initiation, reactivation or progression, or of disease differentiation; (iv) sensitivity and specificity; (v) reproducibility; (vi) practicality; (vii) correlation with therapeutical outcome; (viii) correlation with prognosis and disability. Biomarkers of more than one category are indicated in the third column.