Figure 2.

Electric field enhances angiogenic response by microvascular endothelial cells. (a) Cell exposure to high-frequency EF significantly enhanced capillary morphogenesis, with clear multi-cellular tubule formation (20× magnified image, green: endothelial cells, blue: cell nuclei), resulting in larger characteristic network size (b) when compared with low-frequency and no-EF groups (n = 10, p < 0.001). Scale bar, 100 µm. (c) High-frequency EF stimulation resulted in significantly higher levels of VEGF released into the culture medium, when compared with the no-EF group (n = 3, p < 0.01).