Table 3.

Studies that report proximate causes of declines in abundance or fitness associated with El Niño-Southern Oscilliation (ENSO) events.

species	location	hypothesized proximate cause of decline	reference
fig wasps (Hymenoptera: Agonidae)	Borneo	ENSO event causes obligate host trees (Ficus sp.) to fail to produce inflorescences, resulting in local extinction of pollinating wasps	[73]
corals	Panama and Ecuador	high sea surface temperatures cause bleaching and mortality	[74]
butterflyfish	Indian Ocean	climate-related loss of coral food source	[75]
toad (Bufo boreas)	Western USA	warming reduces water depth in ponds, which increases ultraviolet-B exposure of embryos, which in turn increases risk of fungal infection	[76]