Table 1.
Redox-Inducible Transcription Factors
| T | Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) |
|---|---|
| B | Redox sensor, regulates genes related with inflammation, cell growth, stress responses, including oxidative stress, and apoptosis |
| E | Activation of NF-κB binding to DNA in rat skeletal muscle in response to acute treadmill running (111, 139, 142, 162) |
| NF-κB activation in human peripheral blood lymphocytes in response to acute spring and endurance exercise (76, 420) | |
| Acute treadmill exercise activates NF-κB in an intensity-dependent manner in human peripheral blood lymphocytes (182) | |
| Acute eccentric exercise induces and submaximal eccentric training decreases NF- kB activation in PBMC (101, 165) | |
| Acute intensive resistance exercise increases NF-κB activity in human skeletal muscle (418) | |
| Acute fatiguing resistance exercise decreases NF-κB binding to DNA in skeletal muscle from healthy humans and mice (87) | |
| NF-κB activation in response to moderate-intensity cycle exercise in muscle from nondiabetic subjects, but not in type II diabetics (392) | |
| Increased basal NF-κB activity in muscle from insulin-resistant and type II diabetic subjects, and in diabetic rat (197, 392) | |
| NF-κB activation for DNA binding by isometric contraction in muscle of adult, but not old mice (416) | |
| Muscle unloading increases NF-κB activity in mice (87, 150) | |
| NF-κB−/− mice is resistant to unloading-induced muscle atrophy (149) | |
| Training increases basal levels, but blunts isometric contraction-induced NF-κB activation in skeletal muscle of mice (53) | |
| Treadmill training increases nuclear levels of NF-κB in skeletal muscle of adult and old rats (105) |
| T | Activator protein-1 (AP-1) |
|---|---|
| B | Senses intracellular redox state and regulates the expression of multiple genes involved in stress response, growth, and differentiation |
| E | Activation of AP-1 for DNA binding in rodent skeletal muscle in response to acute treadmill running (142) |
| AP-1 activation by isometric contraction in muscle of adult, but not old, mice (416) | |
| Training increases AP-1 activation in mouse skeletal muscle (53) |
| T | Nuclear respiratory factors (NRFs) |
|---|---|
| B | Activates expression of genes regulating cellular growth, respiration, heme biosynthesis, and mitochondrial DNA transcription and replication |
| E | Regular physical activity increased expression of NRF1 in young, and a single exercise bout decreased its expression in sketal muscle of both young and old individuals (41) |
| 5-week endurance training increased NRF-1 protein levels in skeletal muscle of young Wistar rats, but not in old ones (80) | |
| Treadmill training increases nuclear levels of NRF-2 in skeletal muscle of adult and old rats (105) | |
| Correlation of VO2peak with NRF-1 mRNA levels in skeletal muscle of healthy human (102) | |
| One bout of 3-h swimming in Wistar rats increases NRF-1- and NRF-2-binding activity (20) | |
| Acute exercise did not change NRF-1 mRNA expression in leg skeletal muscle of trained or untrained human (286) | |
| In healthy trained male cyclist, 10-km cycling increases skeletal muscle NRF-2 mRNA levels (58) | |
| 2 times/day, 3-h running bouts or 2-h swimming↑binding of NRF-1/2 in skeletal muscle of Wistar rats (434) | |
| An acute bout of exercise induced NRF-1 expression in rat muscle (245) |
| Forkhead box class O transcription factors (FOXOs) | |
|---|---|
| T | Control apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, DNA damage repair, detoxification of ROS, cell differentiation, and glucose metabolism |
| B | Marathon running induces PBMC FOXO3A mRNA expression (225) |
| Acute exercise does not alter FOXO expression in human skeletal muscle (72) | |
| A single bout of 60-min cycle exercise did not alter FOXO1/3 mRNA expression in untrained healthy males (72) | |
| High-intensity cycling until exhaustion↑FOXO-1-2 mRNA expression in skeletal muscle of healthy sedentary humans (223) | |
| Exercise training increased FOXO3a protein in the heart tissue of aged rats (91) |
| T | Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor transcription factors (PPARs) |
|---|---|
| B | Regulate the expression of genes involved in the transport, metabolism, and handling of FFAs |
| E | A single bout of 60-min cycle exercise did not alter PPAR-α/β/γ mRNA expression in untrained healthy males (72) |
| 3-week training did not alter PPAR-α mRNA expression in PBMC of soccer players (299) | |
| High-intensity cycling until exhaustion↑PPAR-γ/δ mRNA expression in skeletal muscle of healthy sedentary humans (223) | |
| One bout of 2-h endurance exercise↑PPAR-β/δ mRNA in skeletal muscle of healthy humans (340) |
| T | Nuclear receptor-binding factor (NRBF) |
|---|---|
| B | Binding partner to PPAR-α and other nuclear receptors |
| E | High-intensity cycling until exhaustion↑NRBF-2 mRNA expression in skeletal muscle of healthy sedentary humans (223) |
| T | Early growth response factor 1(EGR1) |
|---|---|
| B | Stretch-responsive gene activation for ROS detoxification, regulation of Sirt1, inflammation, and immune response regulation |
| E | Mechanical stretch to myotubes increased EGR1 induction (275) |
| Acute exercise decreased EGR-1 expression in younger and increased in older subjects (168) | |
| 2-weeks swim training did not influence EGR-1 protein levels in the rat heart (135) |
| T | Hypoxia- inducible factor 1s (HIF-1s) |
|---|---|
| B | Encodes proteins that help the cellular response to low O2 increased angiogenesis, erythropoiesis, glucose uptake |
| E | Endurance training blunts acute exercise-induced HIF-1/2-α mRNA expression in human skeletal muscle (220) |
| 45 min of one-legged knee-extension exercise elevated protein levels and DNA-binding activity of HIF-1α in human skeletal muscle (11) | |
| 45 min of one-legged knee-extension exercise increased mRNA expression of HIF-1γ, but not HIF-1α (125) | |
| 6 weeks of high-intensity bicycle training under hypoxic, but not normoxic, conditions increased HIF-1α mRNA expression in human skeletal muscle (422) | |
| 6 weeks of endurance training under hypoxic, but not normoxic, conditions increased HIF-1α mRNA expression in human skeletal muscle of male high-level, long-distance runners (446) | |
| 3 weeks of intermittent hypoxic training decreased HIF-1 mRNA expression in skeletal muscle, but not leukocytes, of male endurance athletes (241) | |
| Exercise in acute, but not in chronic, hypoxia increased HIF-1α protein levels in skeletal muscle of CD-1 mice (194) |
| T | Heat-shock factor (HSF) |
|---|---|
| B | Regulates transcriptionally heat-shock protein synthesis |
| E | HSF activation for DNA binding by isometric contraction both in adult and old mouse muscle (416) |
| Endurance training induced the activation and expression of HSF-1 in the skeletal muscle in nondiabetic rats (18) | |
| 2 days of treadmill running exercise increased myocardial HSF-1 protein and HSF-1 activation in both young and old male Fischer-344 rats (79) | |
| Acute intensive exercise induces HSF-1 activation in rat myocardium (214) |
| T | Tumor suppressor protein p53 |
|---|---|
| B | Controls cell cycle arrest, muscle mitochondrial biogenesis, DNA repair, triggers senescence and apoptosis, maintains antioxidant defense, regulates its own levels |
| E | 8 weeks of endurance training decreased p53 protein in skeletal muscle of type II diabetic rats (301) |
| 4 weeks of endurance training decreased p53 mRNA in cardiac muscle of younger and older mice and p53 translocalization to mitochondria in older mice (300) | |
| p53−/− mice have higher aerobic exercise capacity (276) |
| T | Mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM) |
|---|---|
| B | Regulates mitochondrial gene transcription, DNA replication, and antioxidant protection |
| E | Physical activity increased the expression of TFAM in muscle of young adults, strong correlation between VO2max and TFAM (41) |
| Elite athletes have a higher level of TFAM expression than moderately trained individuals (263) | |
| Acute exercise increased TFAM mRNA expression in trained or untrained leg skeletal muscle of a healthy human (286) | |
| 4 weeks, 4 days/week, 45 min/day of one-legged training increased TFAM protein levels in skeletal muscle of a healthy human (30) | |
| Correlation of VO2peak with TFAM mRNA expression in skeletal muscle of a healthy human (102) | |
| Endurance training did not influence TFAM in skeletal muscle of healthy subjects and patients with mitochondrial myopathy (4) |
| T | Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) |
|---|---|
| B | Regulates antiapoptotic signaling and skeletal muscle regeneration, cardiac protection, and myocyte elongation |
| E | STAT3 phosphorylation and translocalization↑in human skeletal muscle after acute resistance exercise (407) |
| Resistance exercise-induced STAT3 phosphorylation, increased with age (408) | |
| 24 and 48 h after single bout of resistance exercise increased STAT3 phosphorylation in skeletal muscle of aged rat (127) | |
| 20 days of eccentric training increase STAT-3 phosphorylation in skeletal muscle of Wistar rats (266) | |
| Acute sprint exercise increased STAT3 and STAT5 phosphorylation in human skeletal muscle (120) | |
| Acute resistance exercise-induced nuclear STAT3 phosphorylation was more prominent in skeletal muscle of old individuals compared to young adults (85) |
T, transcription factor; B, biological function; E, exercise response; ROS, reactive oxygen species; VO2max, maximal oxygen uptake; ↑, increase.