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. 2012 Dec 7;177(1):33–41. doi: 10.1093/aje/kws202

Table 3.

Mean Differencea in “Average” Cognition Score (Average of Scores From All 4 Cognitive Assessments) in Later Life Across Quintiles of Totalb and Dietaryc Intake of Vitamin E, Vitamin C, and Carotenoids, Nurses’ Health Study, 1995–2001

Antioxidant and Quintile Median Intaked Global Composite
 Verbal Composite
 TICS
Mean Difference 95% CI Mean Difference 95% CI Mean Difference 95% CI
Total vitamin Ee,f
 1 7 0.00 Referent 0.00 Referent 0.00 Referent
 2 12 0.04 0.01, 0.07 0.03 0.00, 0.07 0.17 0.04, 0.30
 3 31 0.05 0.02, 0.08 0.05 0.01, 0.08 0.21 0.07, 0.34
 4 69 0.08 0.05, 0.11 0.09 0.05, 0.12 0.31 0.17, 0.45
 5 159 0.05 0.02, 0.08 0.05 0.02, 0.09 0.16 0.02, 0.31
 P-trendg 0.12 0.06 0.49
Dietary vitamin Ee,h
 1 6.2 0.00 Referent 0.00 Referent 0.00 Referent
 2 7.1 0.03 0.00, 0.05 0.03 0.00, 0.06 0.08 −0.04, 0.21
 3 7.8 0.04 0.01, 0.06 0.04 0.00, 0.07 0.12 0.00, 0.25
 4 8.5 0.04 0.01, 0.07 0.05 0.01, 0.08 0.12 0.00, 0.25
 5 9.9 0.05 0.02, 0.08 0.08 0.04, 0.11 0.14 0.02, 0.27
 P-trend 0.0008 < 0.0001 0.03
Total vitamin Ce,i
 1 124 0.00 Referent 0.00 Referent 0.00 Referent
 2 178 −0.02 −0.05, 0.01 −0.02 −0.06, 0.01 −0.09 −0.22, 0.03
 3 244 0.01 −0.02, 0.04 0.01 −0.02, 0.04 0.01 −0.11, 0.14
 4 389 0.01 −0.02, 0.04 0.02 −0.02, 0.05 0.00 −0.13, 0.13
 5 761 0.00 −0.03, −0.04 0.00 −0.04, 0.03 −0.06 −0.20, 0.07
 P-trend 0.51 0.77 0.54
Dietary vitamin Ce,j
 1 95 0.00 Referent 0.00 Referent 0.00 Referent
 2 126 0.03 0.00, 0.05 0.02 −0.01, 0.05 0.16 0.04, 0.28
 3 149 0.01 −0.02, 0.03 0.01 −0.03, 0.04 0.05 −0.07, 0.18
 4 173 0.02 −0.01, 0.05 0.03 0.00, 0.06 0.10 −0.02, 0.23
 5 213 0.03 0.00, 0.06 0.04 0.01, 0.07 0.16 0.03, 0.28
 P-trend 0.12 0.009 0.05
Total carotenoidse,j
 1 8,631 0.00 Referent 0.00 Referent 0.00 Referent
 2 11,436 0.03 0.01, 0.06 0.04 0.01, 0.07 0.09 −0.03, 0.22
 3 13,841 0.05 0.02, 0.08 0.05 0.02, 0.09 0.13 0.01, 0.26
 4 16,594 0.05 0.02, 0.08 0.07 0.03, 0.10 0.11 −0.02, 0.23
 5 21,310 0.06 0.03, 0.09 0.09 0.06, 0.13 0.13 0.00, 0.25
 P-trend 0.0001 < 0.0001 0.08
Dietary carotenoidse,j
 1 8,326 0.00 Referent 0.00 Referent 0.00 Referent
 2 11,095 0.05 0.02, 0.08 0.07 0.04, 0.10 0.13 0.01, 0.25
 3 13,407 0.05 0.02, 0.08 0.06 0.03, 0.09 0.12 0.00, 0.25
 4 16,044 0.06 0.03, 0.09 0.08 0.05, 0.12 0.14 0.02, 0.27
 5 20,506 0.06 0.03, 0.09 0.10 0.07, 0.13 0.11 −0.01, 0.24
 P-trend 0.0005 < 0.0001 0.13

Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; TICS, Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status.

a Mean differences compare the mean “average cognition” in later life for women in the quintile of interest with women in quintile 1 (the referent). Therefore, a positive mean difference indicates that women in the quintile of interest have higher “average cognition” than those in quintile 1; a negative mean difference indicates that women in the quintile of interest have lower “average cognition” than those in quintile 1.

b Total intake includes the contributions of foods and supplements.

c Dietary intake includes the contribution of foods only.

d Median intakes are expressed in g/day for vitamins E and C and in μg/day for carotenoids.

e Adjusted for age (years; continuous), education (registered nurse degree, bachelor's degree, graduate degree), time span between cognitive interviews (years; continuous), antidepressant use (yes, no), alcohol intake (none, 0–14 g/day, ≥15 g/day, or missing data), smoking (never, past, or current), physical activity (quintiles of metabolic equivalent of task-hours/week, or missing data), total energy intake (quintiles of kcal/day), body mass index (<22, 22–24, 25–30, ≥30, or missing data), history of high blood pressure (yes, no), history of high cholesterol (yes, no), history of type 2 diabetes (yes, no), and history of myocardial infarction (yes, no).

f Additionally adjusted for use of vitamin C supplements (yes—regularly, yes—seasonally, no, or missing data), use of multivitamins (yes, no, or missing data), and polyunsaturated fat intake (quintiles).

g Linear tests for trend were performed using the median value of each quintile as a continuous variable in regression models.

h  Additionally adjusted for use of vitamin E supplements (yes, no, or missing data), vitamin C supplements, and multivitamins and polyunsaturated fat intake (quintiles).

i Additionally adjusted for use of vitamin E supplements and multivitamins.

j Additionally adjusted for use of vitamin E supplements, vitamin C supplements, and multivitamins.