Table 2.

Helminth regulation of type 1 diabetes.

Helminth	Autoimmune disease model	Incidence	Insulitis	Blood glucose level	Associated leukocyte populations	Cytokines involved	Ref.
T.  crassiceps	T1D/MLD-STZ	≈50%	0%	≈200 mg/dL	AAMs, Th2 cells	High IL-4; low TNF-α	[17]
S.  mansoni	T1D/MLD-STZ	N.S.	Relatively less infiltration and injury	≈200 mg/dL	Th2 cells	High IL-4/10/5; low IFN-γ	[48]
S.  mansoni	T1D/NOD mice	10–30%	N.S.	<150 mg/dL	Th2 cells, eosinophils	High IL-4	[49]
T.  spiralis	T1D/NOD mice	10%	N.S.	<200 mg/dL	Th2 cells	High IL-4	[50]
L.  sigmodontis	T1D/NOD mice	0%¶	≈70%	≤230 mg/dL	AAMs, Th2 cells, Tregs	High IL-4/5	[51]
H.  polygyrus	T1D/NOD mice	0%	≈20%	<200 mg/dL	AAMs, Th2 cells	High IL-4/13/10; low IFN-γ/IL-17	[15]

T1D: type 1 diabetes; MLD-STZ: multiple low doses of streptozotocin; NOD: nonobese diabetic; N.S.: not specified; ^¶incidence defined as mice with blood glucose levels greater than 230 mg/dL, while in the other models this was defined as blood glucose levels greater than 200 mg/dL.