Table 3.

Helminth regulation of rheumatoid arthritis.

Helminth involved	Autoimmune model	Incidence	Clinical score¶	Histopathology	Humoral immunity	Cytokines	Leukocytes	Ref.
T.  crassiceps	CFA monoarthritis	100%	2/4	Similar damage in the infected group	High IgG1 and IgG2a	Low IFN-γ and IL-4	AAMs	[65]
S. j ap on ic um*	DBA.1 mice	60%	≈3/9	Ameliorated sinovial hyperplasia, mononuclear cell infiltration, and angiogenesis	Low IgG2a; high IgG1	High IL-4/10; low IL-1β/6 TNF-α, IFN-γ	Th2 cells, Tregs	[66]
S.  oblevata	CFA monoarthritis	21%	1.45/4	N.S.	N.S.	N.S.	N.S.	[67]
S.  mansoni	DBA.1 mice	0%	0/6	N.S.	Low IgG1 and IgG2a	High IL-4/10; low IFN-γ	Tregs	[68]
S. j ap on ic um**	DBA.1	N.S.	≈1/9	No synovial hyperplasia, inflammatory infiltrate, or bon/cartilage destruction	Low IgG2a	High IL-4/10 RANKL; low IL-17-α, IFN-γ, TNF-α	No Tregs	[69]
H.  diminuta	CFA monoarthritis	N.S.	N.S.	Any knee swelling	N.S.	High IL-4/10; low TNF-α, IL-12p40	AAMs, Th2 and B2 cells, less granulocyte infiltration	[70]

CFA: complete Freund's adjuvant; *two-week preinfected mice; **seven-week preinfected mice; N.S.: not specified. ^¶see original references, as disease severity is differentially evaluated between models.