TABLE I.
Distribution of covariates by maternal childhood SES (n = 510)*
| All (n = 510) |
Parental home ownership† |
P value‡ |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| No (n = 223) | Yes(n = 287) | |||
| Maternal characteristics | ||||
| Age at child’s birth (y [mean ± SD]) |
27 ± 6.1 | 25.3 ± 5.5 | 28.6 ± 6.1 | <.001 |
| Nativity status§ | <.001 | |||
| American born | 169 (33) | 113 (51) | 56 (20) | |
| Foreign born | 341 (67) | 110 (49) | 231 (81) | |
| Education, no. (%) | .11 | |||
| <High school | 188 (37) | 90 (40) | 98 (34) | |
| High school degree | 149 (29) | 71 (32) | 78 (27) | |
| ≥Some college | 157 (31) | 59 (27) | 98 (34) | |
| Missing | 16(3) | 3 (1) | 13 (5) | |
| Race, no. (%) | .08 | |||
| Hispanic | 302 (60) | 118 (53) | 184 (64) | |
| Black | 141 (28) | 73 (33) | 68 (24) | |
| White | 42 (8) | 20 (9) | 22 (8) | |
| Other/mixed | 25 (5) | 12 (5) | 13 (5) | |
| Asthma/atopy, no. (%) | <.01 | |||
| No | 317 (62) | 123 (55) | 194 (68) | |
| Yes | 178 (35) | 91 (41) | 87 (30) | |
| Missing | 15 (3) | 9 (4) | 6(2) | |
| Lifetime IPT∥ | .15 | |||
| Never experienced | 266 (52) | 105 (47) | 161 (56) | |
| One period | 161 (32) | 74 (33) | 87 (30) | |
| Chronic IPT | 64 (13) | 33 (15) | 31 (11) | |
| Missing | 19 (4) | 11 (5) | 8 (3) | |
| Prenatal maternal smoking, no. (%) |
<.01 | |||
| No | 430 (84) | 176 (79) | 254 (89) | |
| Yes | 77 (15) | 45 (20) | 32 (11) | |
| Missing | 3 (1) | 2 (1) | 1 (0) | |
| Childhood characteristics | ||||
| Sex, no. (%) | .18 | |||
| Male | 248 (49) | 116 (52) | 132 (46) | |
| Female | 262 (51) | 107 (48) | 155 (54) | |
| Season of birth | .53 | |||
| Winter | 139 (27) | 63 (29) | 76 (27) | |
| Summer | 111 (22) | 54 (24) | 57 (20) | |
| Spring | 105 (21) | 42 (19) | 63 (22) | |
| Fall | 155 (30) | 64 (29) | 91 (32) | |
| Birth weight, z value for gestational age (mean ± SD) |
− 0.26 ± 1.2 | − 0.27 ± 1.1 | − 0.25 ± 1.2 | .87 |
| Prenatal exposures | ||||
| Discrimination (mean ± SD)¶ |
1.0 ± 1.6 | 0.94 ± 1.5 | 1.1 ± 1.6 | .34 |
| Financial strain# | 5.9 ± 2.6 | 5.9 ± 2.7 | 5.9 ± 2.5 | .96 |
| Community violence (mean ± SD)** |
0.006 ± 0.92 | 0.16 ± 0.96 | −0.11 ± 0.87 | <.001 |
| Other negative life events (mean ± SD)†† |
1.8 ± 1.8 | 1.9 ± 1.9 | 1.7 ± 1.8 | .23 |
| Allergens (cockroach or mouse), no. (%)‡‡ |
.98 | |||
| No | 262 (51) | 110 (49) | 152 (53) | |
| Yes | 191 (38) | 80 (36) | 111 (39) | |
| Missing | 57 (11) | 33 (15) | 24 (8) | |
| Signs of housing deterioration |
.24 | |||
| None | 247 (48) | 99 (44) | 148 (52) | |
| 1 | 161 (32) | 71 (32) | 90 (31) | |
| 2 | 80 (16) | 42 (19) | 38 (13) | |
| ≥3 | 22 (4) | 11 (5) | 11 (4) | |
| Traffic-related air pollution (mean ± SD)11 |
1.8 ± 0.7 | 1.9 ± 0.8 | 1.8 ± 0.7 | .16 |
Percentage might add to more than 100 because numbers were rounded up.
The mother’s parents owned their home during her childhood (birth to age 10 years).
For differences between nonmissing multigroup comparisons using ANOVA and χ2 distribution when applicable.
Less than 4% of the Latino sample was born in Puerto Rico. They were considered US born.
Derived from the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale.21 IPT was a 3-category interval variable: (1) unexposed, (2) 1 time period (during childhood or teenage years only or during adulthood and/or the index pregnancy only), or (3) exposure in both time periods.
Assessed by using the Experiences of Discrimination Scale.23
Based on a 3-item index of economic difficulties.24
Assessed through the modified version of the My Exposure to Violence survey.25
Assessed through the Crisis in Family Systems (CRISYS) survey.27
High MUP values were defined as greater than the median: 246 U/g for wheeze and 332 U/g for IgE. An increased cockroach allergen level was defined as Bla g 1, Bla g 2, or both at greater than 2 U/g.
Black carbon exposure was estimated on the basis of the mother’s residence during pregnancy by using a validated spatiotemporal land-use regression model.32