Table 2.

Anti-Plasmodium effector molecules

Effector	Properties	Target parasite	Parasite stage(s)	Function or mechanism	Refs
Parasite killing
Scorpine	Scorpion Pandinus imperator venom peptide	P. falciparum P. berghei	Gametocyte to Ookinete	Cecropin and defensin-like lytic peptide.	[29]
Shiva1	Cecropin-like synthetic peptide	P. berghei P. falciparum	Gametocyte to Ookinete	Lyses parasites	[93]
Shiva-3	Cecropin-like synthetic peptide	P. falciparum P. berghei	Gametocyte to ookinete	Lyses parasites	[33]
Cec A	An. gambiae cecropin A	P. berghei	Ookinete	Lyse parasites.	[28]
Cec B	An. gambiae cecropin B	P. falciparum	Oocyst	Lyses parasites	[32]
DEF1 A	An. gambiae defensin A	P. falciparum P. berghei	Ookinete	Lyses parasites	[26]
Gambicin	An. gambiae antimicrobial peptide	P. falciparum P. berghei	Ookinete	Lyses parasites	[27]
Angiotensin II		P. gallinaceum	Sporozoite	Lyses parasites	[31]
Magainins	Peptides from the African clawed frog Xenopus laevis skin	P. falciparum P. knowlesi P. cynomolgi	All mosquito stages	Lyses parasites	[32]
Gomesin	A antimicrobial peptide from Spider	P. falciparum P. berghei	All mosquito stages	Lyses parasites	[34]
CEL-III	Hemolytic C-Type Lectin	P. falciparum P. berghei	Ookinete, oocyst	Lyses parasites	[13]
TP10	Wasp venom peptide	P. falciparum	Gametocyte to ookinete	Lyses the parasites.	[94]
AdDLP	Anaeromyxobacter dehalogenans defensin-like peptide	P. berghei	Ookinete	Lyses the parasites	[95]
Meucin-25	Scorpion Mesobuthus eupeus venom gland	P.. berghei P. falciparum	Gametocyte	Anti-microbial linear cationic peptide	[96]
Drosomycin	An inducible antifungal peptide initially isolated from the Drosophila melanogaster haemolymph	P. berghei	Ookinete	Lyses the parasites	[97]
Interaction with parasites
EPIP	Enolase-Plasminogen Interaction Peptide	P. falciparum P. berghei	Ookinete	Inhibits mosquito midgut invasion by preventing plasminogen binding to the ookinete surface	[35]
Pro:EPIP	A fusion peptide composed of a chitinase propeptide (Pro) and EPIP	P. falciparum P. berghei	Ookinete	Blocks ookinete traversal of the mosquito peritrophic matrix and prevents plasminogen binding to the ookinete surface	[30]
Pbs21scFv-Shiva1	Single-chain immunotoxin	P. falciparum P. berghei	Gametocyte to Oocyst	A single-chain monoclonal antibody (scFv) targeting the major ookinete surface protein pbs21 and linked to the lytic peptide Shiva1.	[37]
scFv 4B7	A single-chain antibody	P. falciparum	Ookinete	Binds to P. falciparum ookinete surface protein Pfs25	[16, 36]
scFv 2A10	Single-chain antibody	P. falciparum	Ookinete	Targets the P. falciparum circumsporozoite protein (CSP)	[16, 36]
PfNPNA-1	Single-chain antibody	P. falciparum	Sporozoite	Recognizes the repeat region (Asn-Pro-Asn-Ala) of the P. falciparum surface circumsporozoite protein	[50]
scFv 1C3	Single-chain antibody	P. falciparum	Ookinete	Binds a P. falciparum secreted enzyme chitinase 1	[16]
Interaction with mosquito midgut or salivary gland epithelia
SM1	Salivary gland and midgut peptide 1	P. berghei P. falciparum	Ookinete, sporozoite	Blocks ookinete invasion of the midgut epithelium or sporozoite invasion of the salivary gland epithelium.	[10]
mPLA2	Bee venom phospholipase	P. falciparum P. berghei	Ookinete	Inhibits ookinete midgut invasion, probably by modifying the properties of the midgut epithelial membrane	[12]
Pro	A chitinase propeptide	P. falciparum P. berghei	Ookinete	Inhibits the enzyme and blocks ookinete traversal of the mosquito peritrophic matrix	[39]
Pchtscfv	Single-chain antibody	P. falciparum	Ookinete	Inhibits the P. falciparum chitinase and blocks ookinete traversal of the mosquito peritrophic matrix	[98]
Manipulation of mosquito immune system
Akt	A protein kinase	P. falciparum P. berghei	Ookinete	Akt boosts mosquito innate insulin immunity via signaling	[15]
Rel2	Anopheles IMD pathway transcription factor	P. falciparum P. berghei	Ookinete, sporozoite	Rel2 overexpression enhances mosquito IMD pathway	[14]