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. 2013 Mar 14;5:9. doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2013.00009

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Copper metabolism of astrocytes. Copper is taken up into astrocytes by the copper transporter receptor 1 (Ctr1) and also by Ctr1-independent mechanisms which may include the divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) or members of the ZIP family of metal transporters. An ecto-cuprireductase and/or extracellular ascorbate will provide the reduced copper species for astrocytic uptake by Ctr1 or DMT1. Accumulated copper is stored in astrocytes as complex with GSH or in metallothioneins (MT). In addition, copper is shuttled to its specific cellular target, by the copper chaperones CCS to superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), by Cox17 to Sco1/2 and Cox11 for subsequent incorporation into cytochrome c oxidase and by antioxidant protein 1 (Atox1) to ATP7A. ATP7A transports copper into the trans-Golgi network for subsequent incorporation into copper-dependent enzymes. When the cellular copper level rises above a certain threshold, ATP7A translocates reversibly via vesicles to the plasma membrane to export copper.