Table 2.
Characteristics of randomized controlled trials examining the effects of positive psychology interventions
| Author | Intervention | Session (number), duration | Mean age (range or SD) | Delivery | Recruitment | Self-selection | Psychosocial problems / inclusion criteria | Control Group | N analyzed (post test) | Attrition rate, % (post test) | Outcome measures | Follow-up (min. 3 months) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abbott 2009
[78] |
ResilienceOnline |
7, 10w |
43 |
Self-help |
Organization |
Self-selected |
None |
Waiting list |
Ne=26 Nc=27 |
41.5% |
PWB: AHI DEP: DASS-21 |
- |
| Boehm 2011
[73] |
Optimism and gratitude exercise |
6, 6w |
35.6 (11.4) |
Self-help |
Community |
Self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=146 Nc=74 |
? |
SWB: SWLS |
- |
| Buchanan 2010
[56] |
Doing acts of kindness |
10, 10d |
26 (18–60) |
Self-help |
University |
Self-selected |
None |
No intervention |
Ne=28 Nc=28 |
0% (? nr) |
SWB: SWLS |
- |
| Burton 2004
[64] |
Writing about positive experiences |
3, 3d |
College-based sample 18.6 (0.95) |
Self-help |
University |
Not self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=48 Nc=42 |
0% |
SWB: PA |
- |
| Cheavens 2006
[76] |
Hope therapy |
8, 8w |
49 (32–64) |
Group |
Community |
Self-selected |
Inclusion criteria unclear |
Waiting list |
Ne=17 Nc=15 |
12% 22% T: 18% |
PWB: SHS DEP: CES-D |
- |
| Emmons 2006 study 1
[29] |
Practising gratitude by counting one’s blessings |
10, 10w |
U (students) |
Self-help |
University |
Not self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=65 Nc=67 |
T: 4% |
SWB: Life as a whole, upcoming week, PA |
- |
| Emmons 2006 study 3
[29] |
Practising gratitude by counting one’s blessings |
21, 3w |
49 (22–77) |
Self-help |
Referral/hospital |
Not self-selected |
None |
No intervention |
Ne=33 Nc=32 |
0% (? nr) |
SWB: Life as a whole, upcoming week, PA (self-report and observed) |
- |
| Fava 1998
[82] |
Well-being therapy |
8, 16w |
28.4 (6.5) |
Individual |
Referral/hospital |
Self-selected |
Diagnosis of MDD or AD, succesful response to treatment |
TAU |
Ne=10 Nc=10 |
0% |
PWB: RPWB DEP: CID, SQ subscale |
- |
| Fava 2005
[83] |
Well-being therapy |
8, 16w |
41.9 (12) |
Individual |
Referral/hospital |
Self-selected |
Diagnosis of GAD |
TAU |
Ne=8 Nc=8 |
20% |
PWB: RPWB DEP: CID, SQ subscale |
1 yr (not in study) |
| Feldman 2012
[60] |
Hopeful goal-directed thinking |
1, 1d |
18.7 (18–22) |
Group |
University |
Not self-selected |
None |
No intervention |
Ne=37 Nc=29 |
24.7% |
PWB: GSHS, PIL |
|
| Frieswijk 2005
[77] |
Self-management positive bibliotherapy |
5, 10w |
72.9 (6.2) |
Self-help |
Community |
Self-selected |
Slightly or moderately frail (>=65 GFI) |
Waiting list |
Ne=79 Nc=86 |
18.4% 10.4% T: 14.5% |
SWB: SPF-IL PWB: MS |
6 m |
| Gander 2012
[74] |
9 exercises: gratitude visit three good things (1 and 2 weeks), strengths, three funny things, social exercises |
7, 1w 14, 2w |
44.9 (10.07) |
Self-help |
Internet, magazine |
Self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=559 Nc=63 |
74% |
PWB: AHI DEP: CES-D |
6 m |
| Goldstein 2007
[84] |
Cultivating sacred moments |
15, 3w |
(22–44) |
Self-help |
Internet |
Self-selected |
None |
TAU |
Ne=35 Nc=38 |
14.6% 9.5% T: 12.0% |
SWB: SWLS PWB: RPWB |
- |
| Grant 2009
[79] |
Executive coaching |
6, 8-10w |
49.8 |
Group and individual |
Organization |
Self-selected |
None |
Waiting list |
Ne=21 Nc=20 |
18% |
DEP: DASS-21 |
- |
| Grant 2012
[85] |
Solution-focused coaching |
1, 1d |
20.5 (5.4) |
Self-help |
University |
Self-selected |
None |
TAU |
Ne=117 Nc=108 |
0% (? nr) |
SWB: PA |
- |
| Green 2006
[33] |
Life coaching and attainment of goals |
10, 10w |
42.7 (18–60) |
Group |
Community |
Self-selected |
None |
Waiting list |
Ne=25 Nc=25 |
10.7% 10.7% T: 10.7% |
SWB: SWLS, PA PWB: RPWB, SHS |
- |
| Hurley 2012
[61] |
Savoring the moment |
14, 2w |
19.5 (2.06) |
Group / Self-help |
University |
Not self-selected |
None |
No intervention |
Ne=94 Nc=99 |
37.7% 39.6% T: 38.7% |
SWB: PA DEP: BDI |
- |
| King 2001
[66] |
Writing about best possible selves |
4, 4d |
21 (18–42) |
Self-help |
University |
Not self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=19 Nc=16 |
0% |
SWB: PA |
- |
| Kremers 2006
[57] |
Self-management positive group course |
6, 6w |
64.3 (7) |
Group |
Community |
Self-selected |
Single and lonely |
No intervention |
Ne=46 Nc=73 |
17.0% 7.6% T: 16.2% |
SWB: SPF-IL |
6 m |
| Layous 2012
[75] |
Best possible selves exercise |
4, 4w |
19.1 (1.8) |
Self-help Group |
University |
Not self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=80 Nc=37 |
? |
SWB: PA PWB: NS |
- |
| Lichter 1980 study 2
[80] |
Rehearsal of positive statements |
14, 2w |
U (students) |
Individual |
University |
Not self-selected |
None |
Waiting list |
Ne=25 Nc=23 |
0% (? nr) |
SWB: AF1 DEP: BDI |
- |
| Luthans 2008
[65] |
Online well-being program (PsyCap) |
2, 2w |
32.2 |
Self-help |
University |
Self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=187 Nc=177 |
6.0% 4.8% T: 5.5% |
PWB: PCQ |
- |
| Luthans 2010 study 1
[72] |
PsyCap training |
1, 2 h |
21.1 (2.66) |
Group |
University |
Not self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=153 Nc=89) |
0% |
PCQ |
- |
| Lyubomirsky 2006 study 2
[58] |
Thinking about positive life experiences |
3, 3d |
19.5 (2.6) |
Self-help |
University |
Not self-selected |
None |
No intervention |
Ne=26 Nc=36 |
0% |
SWB: SWLS, PA |
- |
| Lyubomirsky 2011
[67] |
Expressing optimism or gratitude |
8, 8w |
19.7 (18–46) |
Self-help |
University |
Self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=218 Nc=101 |
T: 10.1% |
SWB: PLA, SWLS, SHS(2) |
6 m |
| Martinez 2010
[68] |
Practising gratitude by counting one’s blessings |
14, 2w |
20.7 (1.5) |
Self-help |
University |
Not self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=41 Nc=34 |
34.0% |
SWB: PA, GA (self-report and observed) |
- |
| Mitchell 2009
[69] |
Online intervention Use your strenghts in a new way |
3, 3w |
37 (18–62) |
Self-help |
Internet |
Self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=48 Nc=54 |
64.6% 57.4% T: 60.8% |
SWB: PWI-A, SWLS, PA PWB: OTH DEP: DASS-21 |
3 m |
| Page 2012
[62] |
Working for Wellness Program |
6, 6w |
39.7 (10.0) |
Group |
Organization |
Self-selected |
None |
No intervention |
Ne=13 Nc=10 |
58.1% 66.7% T: 62.3% |
SWB: SWLS, PA PWB: SPWB |
6 month |
| Peters 2010
[70] |
Positive future thinking |
1, 1d |
29.7 (21–50) |
Self-help |
University |
Not self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=44 Nc=38 |
0% |
SWB: PA |
- |
| Quoidbach 2009
[59] |
Projecting a positive self in the future |
14, 2w |
32.5 |
Self-help |
University |
Not self-selected |
None |
No intervention |
Ne=15 Nc=57 |
T: 49.5% |
SWB: SHS(2) |
- |
| Schueller 2012
[63] |
Package of 2, 4 or 6 positive psychology exercises (active-constructive responding, gratitude visit, life summary, three good things, savoring, strengths) |
14, 2w 28, 4w 42, 6w |
42.4 (12.1) |
Self-help |
Internet |
Self-selected |
None |
No intervention |
Ne=457 Nc=204 |
54.7% 42.5% T: 55.4% |
DEP: CES-D |
- |
| Seligman 2005
[30] |
Strenghts excercises (2), gratitude (1), positive thinking (2) |
7, 1w |
64% between5-54 |
Self-help |
Internet |
Self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=341 Nc=70 |
T: 28.8% |
PWB: SHI DEP: CES-D |
6 m |
| Seligman 2006 study 1
[51] |
Group positive psychotherapy |
6, 6w |
U (students) |
Group |
University |
Self-selected |
Mild to moderate depressive symptoms (BDI 10–24) |
No intervention |
Ne=14 Nc=20 |
26.3% 4.8% T: 15.0% |
SWB: SWLS DEP: BDI |
3, 6 (in study), 12 m |
| Seligman 2006 study 2
[51] |
Individual positive psychotherapy |
14, 12w |
U (adults) |
Individual |
Referral/hospital |
Self-selected |
Clinical diagnosis of MDD |
TAU |
Ne=11 Nc=9 |
15.4% 40.0% T: 28.6% |
SWB: SWLS PWB: PPTI DEP: HRSD, ZSRS |
- |
| Shapira 2010
[55]; Mongrain 2011
[53]; Sergeant 2011
[54]; Mongrain 2012
[52] |
Three good things, signature strengths, self-compassion, optimism, compassionate action, gratitude intervention |
7, 1w |
34 (11.8) |
Self-help |
Internet |
Self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=804 Nc=138 |
75% |
PWB: SHI DEP: CES-D |
3 (in study), 6 m |
| Sheldon 2002
[32] |
Goal-training program |
2, 2w |
U (students) |
Group |
University |
Not self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=36 Nc=42 |
T: 13.3% |
SWB: PA PWB: RPWB |
- |
| Sheldon 2006
[34] |
Gratitude or visualizing positive self |
14, 2w |
U (students) |
Self-help |
University |
Not self-selected |
None |
Placebo |
Ne=44 Nc=24 |
T: 6.0% |
SWB: PA |
- |
| Spence 2007
[81] |
Life coaching and attainment of goals |
10, 10w |
38.6 |
Individual |
Community |
Self-selected |
None |
Waiting list |
Ne=20 Nc=17 |
4.8%15.0% T: 9.8% |
SWB: SWLS, PA PWB: RPWB |
- |
| Wing 2006 [71] | Positive writing | 3, 3d | 40.3 (18–79) | Self-help | Community | Self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=58 Nc=55 | 6.3% | SWB: SWLS | - |
Abbreviations. U = Unknown; Ne = Number of subjects in experimental group; Nc = Number of subjects in control group; T = Total; nr = Not reported; MDD = Major Depressive Disorder; AD = Anxiety Disorder; GAD = Generalized Anxiety Disorder; AHI = Authentic Happiness Inventory; EASQ = Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire; GFI = Groningen Frailty Indicator; SWLS = Satisfaction with Life Scales; PA = Positive Affect; SHS = State Hope Scale; PIL = Purpose in Life Test; CES-D = Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale; SQ = Kellner’s Symptom Questionnaire; CID = Clinical Interview for Depression; RPWB = Ryff’s Scales of Psychological Well-being; MHC-SF = Mental Health Continuum-Short Form; HS = Hope Scale; BDI = Beck Depression Inventory; SPF-IL = Social Production Function-Index Level Scale; MS = Mastery Scale; AF-1 = Affectometer 1; PCQ = PsyCap Questionnaire; PLA = Pleasant Affect; SHS(2) = Subjective Happiness Scale; GA = Global Appraisals of subjective well-being; PWI-A = Personal Well-being Index for Adults; OTH = Orientations To Happiness; DASS-21 = Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales; WB6 = 6 well-being questions; SHI = Steen Happiness Index; PPTI = Positive Psychotherapy Inventory; HRSD = Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression; ZSRS = Zung Self-Rating Scale; LSI-A = Life Satisfaction Index-A; GDS = Geriatric Depression Scale; GSHS = Goal-Specific Hope Scale; NS = Needs Satisfaction.