Table 10.
Summary of biomonitoring studies.
| Reference | Measured | Activity | Urine Concentration (μg/L) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Frank et al. [213] | Forestry workers involved in aerial application of 2,4-D | During 2 weeks of spraying | High of 323 | ND within one week following spraying |
| Postspray | High of 326 | |||
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| ||||
| Yeary [214] | 45 lawn applicators in four areas | Area 1 | 3.2 (0.1) | Mean (SD) |
| Area 2 | 6.3 (1.8) | Mean (SD) | ||
| Area 3 | 0.35 (0.5) | Mean (SD) | ||
| Area 4 | 1.38 (0.5) | Mean (SD) | ||
|
| ||||
| Lavy et al. [215] | Forestry workers using four different application methods and conventional versus protective equipment | Backpack (conventional) | 73.15 (1.51) | Range (35.8–183.7) |
| Backpack (protective) | 81.09 (1.71) | Range (30.1–244.5) | ||
| Injection bar (conventional) | 6.12 (2.48) | Range (1.4–33.6) | ||
| Injection bar (protective) | 2.48 (3.28) | Range (0.4–12.1) | ||
| Hypohatchet (conventional) | 45.62 (3.14) | Range (1.8–262.9) | ||
| Hypohatchet (protective) | 25.14 (2.79) | Range (0.7–103.5) | ||
| Hack-squirt (conventional) | 9.08 (5.82) | Range (0.4–140.8) | ||
| Hack squirt (protective) | 2.99 (7.48) | Range (0.1–60.3) | ||
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| Harris et al. [216, 217] | Turf applicators of 2,4-D and bystanders | Bystanders | <4 | ND |
|
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| Knopp [154] | 2,4-D production and manufacturing | Production workers | 736 (1.3) | GM (GSD) |
|
| ||||
| Figgs et al. [201] | 2,4-D in applicators | 204 spraying hours | 240 | Mean (range = 12–1285) |
|
| ||||
| Garry et al. [124] | State licensed pesticide applicators | Backpack | 185 | GM (GSD not provided; range 28–1700; next highest 890) |
| Boom spray | 203 | GM (GSD not provided; range 86–290) | ||
| Aerial | 24 | GM (GSD not provided; range ND–97) | ||
| Skidder | 12 | GM (GSD not provided; range 0.85–58) | ||
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| ||||
| Arbuckle et al. [218] | 2,4-D in urine of farm applicator | Self-reported use on application day | 27.36 (72.48) | Mean (SD). Model explained 39% of variability in urine levels. |
| 2,4-D in urine of farm applicator | No application | 2.58 (7.99) | ||
| MCPA in urine of farm applicator | Self-reported use on application day | 44.9 (110.36) | ||
| MCPA in urine of farm applicator | No application | 1.27 (2.28) | ||
|
| ||||
| Hines et al. [219] | 2,4-D in urine of applicator | Ground boom application | 12.8 (1.7) | GM (GSD) |
| 2,4-D in reference population | Reference | 12 | 10% detected | |
|
| ||||
| Curwin et al. [220] | Nonfarmer | No application | 0.29 (3.6) | GM (GSD); n = 45 |
|
| ||||
| Farmer | No application | 0.48 (4.1) | GM (GSD); n = 27 | |
| Curwin et al. [220] | Farmer | Application by others | 1.6 (7.3) | GM (GSD); n = 45 |
| Farmer | Applicator | 13 (7.1) | GM (GSD); n = 16 | |
|
| ||||
| Arbuckle 2006 [221] | 2,4-D in urine of farming families in Ontario | Preapplication | 2.16 (5.14) | GM (SD) includes MCPA and 2,4-D (ELISA method does not distinguish). Application rates, and so forth. not specified. |
| 24 hrs post application | 9.10 (5.02) | |||
| 48 hrs post application | 8.55 (5.68) | |||
| Spouse preapplication | 1.10 (3.48) | |||
| Spouse 24 hrs post | 0.93 (3.21) | |||
| Spouse 48 hours post | 1.08 (4.84) | |||
| Child preapplication | 1.44 (3.65) | |||
| Child 24 hrs post | 0.90 (4.32) | |||
| Child 48 hrs post | 1.46 (2.32) | |||
|
| ||||
| Acquavella et al. [222] | Farm family exposure study to 2,4-D | Self-reported use on application day; application method not reported | 64 | GM (GSD not provided; range 2–1856) |
|
| ||||
| Alexander et al. [223] | Farm families in Minnesota and South Carolina | Applicator | 71.9 (6.2) | GM (GSD); range 1.5–2236 |
| Spouse | 1.7(3.2) | Range 0.5–24.9 | ||
| Children | 4.9 (4.5) | Range ND–640.6 | ||
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| ||||
| Bhatti et al. [224] | 31 seasonal 2,4-D applicators | Noxious weed control for 12 weeks | 259.4 (431.7) | Mean (SD) |
| 31 seasonal 2,4-D applicators | Noxious weed control for 12 weeks | 63.4 (8.1) | GM (GSD) | |
|
| ||||
| Thomas et al. [225] | Agricultural Health Study | Preapplication | 7.8 (4.7) | GM (GSD); min ND–max = 210 |
| Day 1 | 25 (4.1) | GM (GSD); min 1.6–max = 970 | ||
| Day 2 | 26 (3.7) | GM (GSD); min 2.2–max = 1000 | ||
| Day 3 | 23 (4.1) | GM (GSD); min 1.3–max = 840 | ||
| Day 4 | 27 (4.40 | GM (GSD); min 1.1–max = 1700 | ||
| Day 5 | 17 (5.5) | GM (GSD); min 0.8–max = 2500 | ||
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| Morgan et al. [226] | General public, child | Child (NC) | 50th-0.5, 95th-1.9 | n = 66, 88% detectable levels |
| General public, child | Child (OH) | 50th-1.2, 95th-4.3 | n = 69, 97% detectable levels | |
| General public, adult | Adult (NC) | 50th-0.7, 95th-2.8 | n = 66, 86% detectable levels | |
| General public, adult | Adult (OH) | 50th-0.7, 95th-3.3 | n = 69, 87% detectable levels | |
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| ||||
| Aylward et al. [26] (NHANES) | General public, child | 6–11 years | 50th-0.2, 95th-1.55 | 50th = detection level |
| General public, young adult | 12–19 years | 50th-0.2, 95th-1.4 | 50th = detection level | |
| General public, adult | 20–59 years | 50th-0.2, 95th-1.24 | 50th = detection level | |
|
| ||||
| ExpoCastDB 2,4-D [227] | General public NC | Unknown | 0.5 (2.66) | GM (GSD); range 0.23–6.65. |
| General public OH | 0.8 (2.79) | GM (GSD); range 0.44–42.9 | ||