FIG. 5.

The effects of the establishment of hierarchy in non-human primates. The establishment of hierarchy might represent an SLS for non-human primates. Physical and emotional reactions to this type of SLS are represented by dysfunctions of the immune, cardiovascular, and reproductive systems. Alterations in the HPA axis functioning (in particular, hyperactivity of the glucocorticoid system) might be also frequently observed. The CNS may react with the establishment of the hierarchy by increased oxidative stress, which, in turn, may lead to several brain dysfunctions, such as decreased neurogenesis and alterations in synaptic plasticity and neurotransmission.