Table 1.

Autophagy in human cardiovascular disease

Cardiovascular disease	Sample source	No. of patients	Methods to detect autophagy	Autophagic activity	Reference
Heart failure (DCM)	Ventriculectomy	27	EM	Increased	[10]
Heart failure  (unclassified cardiomyopathy)	Endomyocardial biopsy	1	EM	Increased	[1]
Heart failure (idiopathic DCM)	Explanted hearts	19	EM, ubiquitinated proteins	Increased	[12]
Heart failure (idiopathic DCM, LVAD)	Explanted hearts	9	Beclin 1, ATG5, LC3II mRNA  and protein level	Decreased  after LVAD	[13••]
Glycogen storage disease	Animal model of human  disease	N/A	EM	Decreased	[14•]
Ischemic heart disease  (ischemia–reperfusion)	Animal model of human  disease	N/A	EM, Beclin 1, LC3, cathepsin D	Increased	[15]
Anticancer drug-induced  cardiomyopathy (doxorubicin)	Animal model of human  disease	N/A	EM, Beclin 1	Increased	[16•]
Anticancer drug-induced  cardiomyopathy (bortezomib)	Animal model of human  disease	N/A	EM, LC3-GFP	Increased	[17•]

DCM, dilated cardiomyopathy; EM, electron microscopy; LVAD, left ventricular assist device; N/A, not available.