Fig. 2.

Conceptual framework for research on land-use intensity. Socioeconomic and ecological systems are coupled through direct input and output flows (input and output intensification) and indirect effects, such as alterations of biogeophysical conditions or effects on the availability and quality of other ecosystem services not related to output, or indirect socioeconomic impacts on the natural systems, such as changes in atmospheric conditions. While natural science approaches focus on patterns and dynamics of ecosystem processes, social science approaches focus on patterns, dynamics and organization of socioeconomic systems. Only integrated approaches such as a socio-ecological metabolism approach are able to grasp the full cause–effect chains related to land-use intensification.