Table 1.
Clinical consequences and risk factors in zinc deficiency from young up to old age
| Reference | Clinical risk factors and pathologies associated with Zn deficiency |
|---|---|
| Vasto et al. (2006) | Increased total cholesterol |
| Grahn et al. (2001) | Macular degeneration |
| Bunk et al. (1989) | Decreased plasma concentrations of vitamin E |
| Cipriano et al. (2009) | Accumulation of senescent cells with short telomeres |
| Mocchegiani et al. (1998), Dardenne (2002), Bogden (2004), Haase et al. (2006b), and Prasad (2008) | Impairment of the immune response (cell-mediated immunity and humoral immunity) and impairment of thymic and extrathymic T cell pathways (NKT cell number and function) |
| Eberle et al. (1999) | Abnormalities in bone growth and bone formation and mineralisation |
| Gur et al. (2002) | Osteoporosis |
| Hambidge (1992) | Diarrhoea |
| Hambidge (2000) | Pneumonia |
| Kury et al. (2002) | Acrodermatitis enteropathica |
| García et al. (2009) | Obesity especially in children |
| Gibson et al. (2002) | Lack of sexual development in females |
| Leek et al. (1988) | Delayed skeletal maturation and defective mineralisation of bone (monkeys) |
| Little et al. (1989) | Possible contributor to loss of appetite |
| Evans (1986) | hair loss, impotence, skin lesions, weight loss and delayed wound healing |
| Lyon et al. (2003) and Giacconi et al. (2004) | Hypertension and increased risk factor for atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases |
| Mackenzie et al. (2007) | Altered neonatal and infant behaviour and cognitive and motor performance |
| Fraker (2005) | Decreased cell proliferation and increased cell death (apoptosis) |
| Markovits et al. (1990) | Decreased taste acuity |
| Cousins (1985) and Mocchegiani et al. (2008b) | Reduced concentration of blood metal transport proteins (ceruloplasmin, albumin and α2-macroglubulin) |
| Meunier et al. (2005) | High susceptibility to oxidative damage of membrane fractions |
| Marcellini et al. (2006) | Negative consequences on human behaviour |
| Meunier et al. (2005) | Decreased absorption of dietary folate |
| Malavolta et al. (2010) and Mocchegiani et al. 2011) | Increased Cu/Zn ratio as predictor of frailty and mortality in old age |
| Mocchegiani et al. (2006) | Increased inflammation and limited zinc release by Metallothioneins |
| Taysi et al. (2008) | Decreased erythrocyte and cardiac antioxidant capacity |
| Marcellini et al. (2006) | Mood disorders |
| Tinker and Rucker (1985) | Defective connective tissue |
| Prasad (1985) | Weight loss |
| Prasad (1985) | Hypogonadism in males |
| Prasad (1985) | Growth retardation |
| Prasad (1985) | Delayed puberty in adolescents |
| Prasad (1985) | Mental lethargy |
| Prasad (1985), Dardenne (2002), and Mocchegiani et al. (2007) | Altered hormone productions (insulin, glucocorticoids, thyroid hormones, IGF-1, growth hormone, melatonin, testosterone, progesterone and thymulin) |
| Cakman et al. (1996) and Prasad (2000) | Decreased resistance to infection, imbalance of Th1/Th2 paradigm |
| Mariani et al. (2006) and Haase and Rink (2007) | Abnormalities in cytokine and chemokine secretions and functions |
| Sandstead (2000) and Marcellini et al. (2006) | Neuropsychological impairment |
| Sato et al. (2002) | Exacerbated hypertension and cardiovascular diseases |
| Sayeg Porto et al. (2000) | Short stature |
| Moroni et al. (2005), Mariani et al. (2008), and Haase and Rink (2009b) | Decreased functionality in monocytes, neutrophils, natural killer cells, granulocytes and phagocytosis |
| Mocchegiani et al. (2008c) | Risk factor for the development of diabetes |
| Varela et al. (1992), Su and Birmingham (2002), and Nova et al. (2004) | Possible contributor to anorexia nervosa |
| Karaca et al. (2007) | Dwarfism |