TABLE 1:
Summary of the calculated and measured forces required to move chromosomes during mitosis in various organisms.
| Reference | Organism | Force (pN) | Force (dyne) | Type of calculation | Viscosity used in calculation (cP) | Elasticity used in calculation (Pa) | Mitotic stage |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nicklas (1965) | Grasshopper | 0.1 | 1 × 10−8 | Einstein–Stokes equation | 100a | Anaphase | |
| Taylor (1965) | Newt | 0.12 | 1.2 × 10−8 | Einstein–Stokes equation | 300b | Anaphase | |
| Gruzdev (1972) | Haemanthus | 0.06 | 6 × 10−9 | Stokes’ equation | 50a | Anaphase | |
| Alexander and Rieder (1991) | Newt | 10 | 1 × 10−6 | Einstein–Stokes equation | 282b | Prometaphase | |
| Marshall et al. (2001) | Drosophila | 0.7 | 7 × 10−8 | Young's modulus | 38 | Anaphase | |
| Nicklas (1983) | Grasshopper | 700 | 7 × 10−5 | Measured value | Anaphase |
aViscosity values were assumed based on measurements of cytoplasmic viscosities.
bViscosity was measured in the spindle using the Brownian motion of particles.