Figure 1.

A schematic view on salinity effects on plants (osmotic effect and ionic effect) and a general plant response to salinity effects leading to signalling, changes in gene expression, changes in protein expression, changes in plant metabolism and effector responses leading to alleviation of adverse effects of the stress (osmolyte biosynthesis resulting in osmolyte adjustment—alleviation of osmotic stress; activation of ion (Na⁺) transport resulting in ion exclusion or intracellular (vacuolar) compartmentation—alleviation of ionic stress; alleviation of oxidative stress arising as a secondary stress due to imbalances in energy metabolism—activation of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant systems).