Table 1.
Antioxidant and disease modification mechanisms of pterostilbene.
| Cell type | Mechanism | References |
|---|---|---|
| Breast | ||
| Blueberry | ↑Mammary branching, ↑PTEN, ↓mitotic rate | Wu et al. [15] |
| ↓Proliferation | Seeram et al. [16], Boivin et al. [17] |
|
| ↓Proliferation, ↓PI3K/AkT/NK-κB, ↓MMP, ↓Ki-67, ↑caspase 3 | Adams et al. [18] | |
| ↓Cell viability | Remsberg et al. [12] | |
| Pterostilbene | ↓Cell viability, ↑apoptosis, ↑mitochondrial depolarization, ↑superoxide anion, ↑caspase 3/7 | Alosi et al. [19] |
| ↑Caspase 3/7, ↑S phase, ↑superoxide anion, ↓cell viability, ↑apoptosis Synergistic inhibition with Tamoxifen | Mannal et al. [20] | |
| ↑Apoptosis, ↑caspase 3, ↑GPx, ↑Bax, ↑p53, ↓Bcl-2, ↓Akt, ↓MMP ↑Autophagy, ↓mitotic and metastatic potential |
Chakraborty et al. [21, 22] | |
| ↑Bax, ↑cytochrome C, ↑Smac/Diablo, ↑MnSOD | Moon et al. [23] | |
|
| ||
| Cardiovascular | ||
| Blueberry | ↑Mitochondrial depolarization threshold, ↓myocardial infarction size ↑Ejection fraction | Ahmet et al. [30] |
| ↑SOD1, ↑SOD2, ↑GSR, ↑TR-1, ↓atherosclerosis lesion | Wu et al. [31] | |
| Pterostilbene | ↓ROS in HMVECs | Youdim et al. [32] |
| ↓Proliferation, ↓Akt, ↓CDK, ↓cyclin, ↓Rb, ↓PCNA in VSMCs | Park et al. [33] | |
| ↓oxLDL-induced apoptosis, ↓oxidative stress, ↓MMP, ↓Caspase 3/9 ↑Autophagy, ↓LOX-1 signaling ↓NF-κB, ↓Bax and p53 in VECs | Zhang et al. [34, 35] | |
| ↓ACE activity, ↓LH in smokers | McAnulty et al. [39] | |
|
| ||
| Esophagus | ||
| Blueberry | ↑Antioxidant activity, ↓IL-5, ↓GRO/KC | Stoner et al. [41] |
|
| ||
| Stomach | ||
| Blueberry | ↓Proliferation | Boivin et al. [17] |
| Pterostilbene | ↓Proliferation, ↑apoptosis, ↑cytochrome C, ↑caspases 1, 2, 3, 8 and 9 ↓Bcl-XL, ↑Bad, ↑Bax | Pan at el. [43] |
|
| ||
| Colon | ||
| Blueberry | ↓Proliferation | Seeram et al. [16], Boivin et al. [17] |
| Pterostilbene | ↓Cell viability | Remsberg et al. [12] |
| ↓Aberrant crypt foci, ↓iNOS, ↓COX-2, ↑MUC-2 | Suh et al. [46] | |
| ↓Aberrant crypt foci, ↓lymphoid nodules, ↓NF-κB ↓iNOS, ↓COX-2, ↑HO-1, ↑GR, ↓Aldose reductase |
Chiou et al. [47] | |
| ↓Tumor volume, ↓NF-κB, ↓Bcl-2, ↑Bax, ↑Bak, ↑Bad ↑Bid, ↑SOD2 ↑catalase, ↑GPx, ↑GR, ↑TR-1, synergistic inhibition with FOLFOX | Priego et al. [48] | |
|
| ||
| Hematology | ||
| Blueberry | ↓ROS | Youdim et al. [51] |
| Pterostilbene | ↓AAPH-induced hemolysis, ↓GSH depletion, ↓lipid peroxidation | Mikstacka et al. [52] |
|
| ||
| Liver | ||
| Blueberry |
↑ Nqo1, ↑SOD, ↑GST, ↑Nrf-2, ↓MDA, ↓HA, ↓ALT ↑Nrf-2, ↑Nqo1, ↑HO-1, ↑T-lymphocytes |
Wang et al. [55, 56] |
| ↓ALT, ↓bilirubin, ↑GSH, ↓TNF-α, ↓IL-1β, ↓lipid peroxidation | Osman et al. [57] | |
| ↓Proliferation of hepatic cancer cells | Schmidt et al. [58] | |
| Pterostilbene | Protect gap junctional intercellular communication ↑Dephosphorylation of Cx43 |
Kim et al. [59] |
| ↓Proliferation of hepatic cancer cells | Remsberg et al. [12] | |
| ↓Cell viability, ↑antioxidant activity | Hasiah et al. [60] | |
| ↓Micrometastasis↓PI3K, ↓Akt, ↓NF-κB, ↓MMP-9, ↓VEGF, ↓EGF ↓Lung metastasis |
Pan et al. [61] | |
|
| ||
| Pancreas | ||
| Pterostilbene | ↓Cell viability, ↑apoptosis, ↑caspase 3/7, G0/G and S phase arrest | Mannal et al. [63] |
| ↓Tumor volume, ↑apoptosis gene expression, ↑cytochrome C, ↑MnSOD ↑Smac/DIABLO, ↓JAK/STAT3, ↓lipase secretion, ↓IL-1β, ↓IL-6 | McCormack et al. [64, 70] | |
| Synergistic inhibition of cancer proliferation with antioxidant EGCG | Kostin et al. [69] | |
|
| ||
| Metabolic | ||
| Diabetes | ||
| Blueberry | ↑SOD, ↑GPx, ↓HbA1c | Nemes-Nagy et al. [77] |
| Pterocarpus marsupium | ↓Hyperinsulinemia, ↓hypertriglyemia, ↓hyperglycemia | Grover et al. [73] |
| Pterostilbene | ↓Plasma glucose, ↓rat body weight | Manickam et al. [74] |
| ↑Plasma insulin, ↓plasma glucose, ↓HbA1c, ↓glucose-6-phosphatase ↓Fructose-1, 6-biphosphatase, ↑hexokinase, comparable to metformin |
Pari and Satheesh [75] | |
| ↓Oxidative stress, ↑GSH, ↑GST, ↑SOD, ↑GPx, ↑catalase ↓Portal triad inflammation, ↓renal damage |
Satheesh and Pari [76] | |
|
| ||
| Hyperlipidemia | ||
| Pterostilbene | ↓Preadipocyte growth, ↓fat droplet formation, ↓triacylglycerol | Hsu et al. [78] |
| ↑Adiponectin, ↓leptin, ↓LDL, ↑HDL, ↓PPAR-γ, ↓C/EBP-α, ↓resistin ↓FAS, comparable to clofibrate | Rimando et al. [79] | |
|
| ||
| Neurology | ||
| Blueberry | ↑Maze performance, ↓amyloid beta burden, ↓CREB, ↓pPKCγ | Joseph et al. [84, 85] |
| ↑GABA potentiation, ↑GSH | Bickford et al. [86] | |
| ↑Object memory recognition | Malin et al. [87] | |
| ↑Maze performance | Andres-Lacueva et al. [88] | |
| ↑Hippocampal plasticity, ↓IGF-1, ↓IGF-2, ↓ERK | Casadesus et al. [89] | |
| Pterostilbene | ↓Ischemic brain damage | Sweeney et al. [90] |
| ↑Maze performance, ↑cognitive performance | Joseph et al. [83] | |
| ↑MnSOD, ↑PPAR-α, ↓phosphorylated JnK and tau | Chang et al. [91] | |
|
| ||
| Prostate | ||
| Blueberry | ↓Cancer cell growth | Schmidt et al. [58] |
| ↓MMP, ↑TIMP | Matchett et al. [92, 93] | |
| Pterostilbene | ↓Cell viability | Remsberg et al. [12] |
| ↑Apoptosis, ↑caspase 3, ↑GPx, ↑GR, ↑Bax, ↑p53, ↓Bcl-2, ↓Akt ↓MMP, ↑GSH |
Chakraborty et al. [21] | |
| ↑Apoptosis, ↑p53, ↑p21, G1 phase arrest | Lin et al. [94] | |
| ↑Apoptosis, G1/S phase arrest, ↑CDNK1A and CDNK1B, ↓PSA | Wang et al. [95] | |