Table 1.
Biomarkers of oxidative stress and antioxidant capacity in heavy metals-induced nephrotoxicity.
| Metal | Damaged target | Biomarkers of oxidative stress | Biomarkers of antioxidant capacity | Sources |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cr6+
(In vivo) |
Lipid peroxidation DNA Protein carbonylation |
MDA TBARS Urinary NO2−/NO3− 3-NT |
SOD CAT GPx GR HO-1 |
[37, 38, 63–66] |
|
| ||||
| Pb (In vivo) |
Lipid peroxidation | TBARS | GSH GSSG CAT |
[67] |
|
| ||||
| Pb and Hg (In vitro) |
MTs | GSH | ||
| Mitochondria | Hsp25 | GST | [68] | |
| Apoptosis | Hsp72 | |||
| Grp78 | ||||
|
| ||||
| Hg (In vivo) |
MTs | MEL | ||
| Mitochondria | Hsp72 | [69] | ||
| Grp75 | ||||
| iNOS | ||||
|
| ||||
| Cd (In vivo) |
Lipid peroxidation Protein carbonylation |
TBARS DNPH assay |
SOD GSH CAT |
[70] |
CAT: catalase; DNPH: 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; GR: glutathione reductase; Grp: glucose-regulated proteins; GSH: reduced glutathione; GSSG: oxidized glutathione; GST: glutathione-S-transferase; HO-1: Heme oxygenase-1; Hsp: heat shock proteins; iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase; MDA: malondialdehyde; MEL: melatonin; MT: metallothionein; NO2−/NO3−: nitrate/nitrite; 3-NT: 3-nitrotyrosine; SOD: superoxide dismutase; TBARS: thiobarbituric acid reactive substances.