Table II.

Domains and associations to food insecurity in children in Arctic aboriginal and Western countries reported in the literature

	In Western children	In Inuit and Indigenous children in the Arctic
Dietary consumption and nutritional outcomes	Consume fewer servings of fruits and vegetables (9) Consume fewer milk products Nutrient inadequacy for protein, micro-nutrients (vitamins, magnesium, phosphorous, and zinc) (7, 9, 33) Iron-deficiency anaemia (7) Overweight/obesity (conflicting evidence) (9, 42) Under nutrition or underweight for age and height (7, 9) Stunting (7, 9) Breastfeeding seem to give some protection (7) Report eating crisps, fried potatoes and hamburgers more often (schoolchildren) (35) Less likely to report eating breakfast on schooldays (schoolchildren) (37)	Lower median Healthy Eating Index (21) Consumed a lower mean number of different food items in the past day (21) Lower prevalence of any milk consumption (21) Higher median consumption of high-sugar drinks (21) Higher prevalence of traditional food consumption (preschool children) (21) Went hungry or skipping meals (20) High consumption of high-sugar foods and drinks in the household (23) Low consumption of grains, vegetables, fruits and milk in the household (23)
Physical health and development	Children having their health reported as “fair/poor” by parents (7, 9) Less children report excellent health (schoolchildren) (36, 37) Increased rates of acute and chronic illness (9) Predictor of chronic illness (preschool and schoolchildren) (7) Greater odds of hospitalization since birth (in toddlers) (7, 9) Low physical function (in 3–8 year-olds) (9) Being in developmental risk (infants and toddlers) (7) Parental developmental concern (9) Poor developmental trajectories (from kindergarten through 3rd grade) (9) More frequent stomach ache, head ache and colds (7, 9) More frequent report of physical symptoms (schoolchildren) (37) Lower IQ (partly explained by mothers personality and insensitivity to the children's needs) (8) Have been injured more often (schoolchildren) (37)	Less likely to have their health reported as excellent/very good (preschool children) (20) Less likely to be obese (23) Overweight/obese (29)
Life satisfaction and mental health	Increased risk of emotional problems (including higher levels of anxious and irritable, aggressive and oppositional behaviours) (schoolchildren) (9) Having increased anxiety (7) More likely to be aggressive (7) Having increased internalizing behaviour scores (7) Lower health related quality of life (9) Increased risk of having seen a psychologist (schoolchildren) Increased rate of depressive disorder and suicidal symptoms (in adolescents) (7) More likely to have clinical level of psychosocial dysfunction (6–12 year-olds) (7) Behavioural problems (partly explained by mothers personality and insensitivity to the children's needs) (8) More frequent report emotional symptoms (schoolchildren) (37) Less likely to report being happy with their lives (schoolchildren) (37)
Behavioural and psycho-social functioning	Lower psychosocial functioning (9) More likely to have seen a psychologist (7) Lower behavioural functioning (9) More difficulty with getting along with other children (teenagers) (7, 9)	Negative impact on psychological development (20)
	Having a decline in social skills (among boys) (7, 9) More often suspended from school (teenagers) (7, 9) More likely to have had dystonia/thoughts about death/attempted suicide (7) Higher level of hyperactivity, absenteeism and tardiness (7) Higher emotional stress (8) More likely to report poor communication with parents (schoolchildren) (34, 37)
Academic performance	More likely to have repeated a grade (7, 9) Receive lower arithmetic scores (7, 9) Impaired academic performance in reading and mathematics (9) Smaller increase in reading scores (7)	Negative impact academic performance (20)
Risk factors in the home environment	Stressful life events (7–9) Chronically ill parent (9) Recently divorced parent (9) A child with physical disability or injury, learning disability or physical disability (9) Medical care (no usual source of care, postponed care, postponed medications and not receiving the recommended well-child care visit) (with simultaneous housing instability) (9) Smoking in the household (9) Parental depression (especially maternal) (7–9) Parental practices, attachment and proficiency (toddlers) (9) Substance abuse Lower interviewer perceived household sensitivity to children's needs (8)	Substance abuse (19)
Health behaviour	More likely to report high level of television viewing (schoolchildren) (34, 37) More likely to have a history of drunkenness (schoolchildren) (34, 37) More likely to smoke (schoolchildren) (34, 37) More likely to have infrequent tooth-brushing (schoolchildren) (34, 37) Less likely to report to use seatbelt (schoolchildren) (34, 37)
Socio-demographic risk factors in the household	Poverty/low income in household (7–9, 27) Minority/immigrant status/indigenous (7, 9) Low level of educational achievement in parents Unemployment or low level of labour force participation Getting social assistance/income support (27) Lone parent family (7, 27) Household headed by a woman (7, 27) Public or rented housing (7) Multiple child household or crowding Households with young children (7) Living remote (29)	Aboriginals including Inuit (20, 27, 40) Poverty or be in the lowest income adequacy category (27, 40) Multichild households (3 or more) (40) Large families (19) Household crowding (21, 23) Having a home in need of major repairs (21, 23) Public housing (21, 23) Low levels of education achievement in parents (40) Reliance on social assistance and welfare (21, 40) Low level of labour force participation or income from sources other than wages or salaries (40) Households headed by lone parents (19) Families who have no active hunter (19, 23) Low cash-flow (19)
		Number of adults in the home showed tendencies for a protective effect (21) Lack of economic access (20)
Socio-demographic risk factors in the child	Age (schoolchildren) (36, 38) Gender (schoolchildren) (36, 38) Living remote (38)	Age (schoolchildren) (16) Gender (schoolchildren) (16) Living remote (schoolchildren) (16)