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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2013 May 22.
Published in final edited form as: Basic Res Cardiol. 2009 Feb 26;104(2):169–180. doi: 10.1007/s00395-009-0011-9

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Autophagy requires the activity of two-ubiquitin-like pathways. Atg8 and Atg12 both resemble ubiquitin. Atg4 is a cysteine protease that removes the terminal cysteine of Atg8 (LC3) to expose the glycine that is used for conjugation via Atg7 (E1-like) and Atg3 (E2-like) enzymes to the acceptor phosphatidylethanolamine. Atg12 is conjugated to Lys130 in Atg5 via Atg7 and Atg10 (E2-like). Following conjugation of Atg12–Atg5, a heteromeric complex forms with Atg16 that binds to the convex face of the phagophore