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. 2012 Aug 14;249(1):158–175. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-065X.2012.01146.x

Figure 5.

Figure 5

Cellular changes and HMGB 1 release observed with autophagy, apoptosis, and necrosis. The prototypical DAMP, high mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1), is released with sustained autophagy, late apoptosis, and necrosis. Reducible HMGB1 binds to the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), inducing Beclin 1‐dependent autophagy, and binds both RAGE and Toll‐like receptor 2 (TLR2), TLR4, and TLR9, activating NF‐κB and promoting inflammation. In contrast, oxidized HMGB1 increases caspase 3 dependent apoptosis and tolerance by binding CD24 or other unknown receptors.