Table 1.

Effect of CEES on the biomarkers of DNA damage and oxidative stress in JB6 epidermal cells and dermal fibroblasts.

Biomarkers	Time after CEES exposure
	JB6 Cells			Fibroblasts
	1–2 h	4–6/8 h	16–24 h	1–2 h	4–6/8 h	16–24 h
1. DNA Damage
A. Comet Assay	+++	++	+	+++	++	+
B. Western Immunoblotting
i. Phospho H2AX	++	+++	++	++	+++	++
ii. Phospho P53	+	+++	++	+	+++	+++
iii. Total P53	+	++	+++	+	+++	++
2. Oxidative stress
A. MitoSOX Red	++	+++	++	+++	++	+
B. DHE	++	+++	++	+	+++	+
3. Oxidative DNA damage
(8-OHdG)	++	+++	ND	+++	+++	ND

(+++), high, (++), medium or (+) low effect of CEES on DNA damage, oxidative stress and oxidative DNA damage following 1–24 h of its exposure in epidermal and dermal cells.

ND, not determined.