Table 1.

Commonly used measures for positive psychological traits and pain catastrophizing

Construct	Measure	Description	Instructions	Sample item	Scoring	Subscales
Optimism LOT-R	[103]	Dispositional optimism and outcome expectancies	10-items on a 5-point scale	“I’m always optimistic about my future”	6 items totaled (3 positive, 3 negative)	Pessimism: sum items 3,7 and 9
			0 = strongly disagree 4 = strongly agree		Reverse code 3 and 7 Items 2, 5, 6, and 8 are fillers	Optimism: sum items 1, 4 and 10
Self-efficacy ASES	[104]	Measures perceived self-efficacy	20 items, rating scale	“How certain are you that you can decrease your pain quite a bit?”	Each subscale is scored separately by taking the mean score of the items	9 items = physical functioning
			1= very uncertain, 5–6 = moderately uncertain, and 10 = very certain			6 items = other symptoms 5 items = pain
PSEQ	[105]	Assesses the confidence people with ongoing pain have in performing activities while in pain	10 items on a 7-point scale 0 = not at all confident, 6 = very confident	“I can enjoy things, despite the pain”	Total score 0–60	No
GSES	[106]	Assesses optimistic self-beliefs used to cope with a variety of demands in life	10 items on a 4-point scale 1 = not at all true 4 = true	“If I am in trouble, I can usually think of a solution”	Higher scores indicate stronger patient’s belief in self-efficacy	No
Hope ATHS	[107]	Dispositional report measure of hope	12 items on a 4-point scale	“I energetically pursue my goals”	Sum responses	Pathways score: add items 1, 4, 6, and 8
			1 = definitely false		Total score 8–64
			4 = definitely true		Add the pathways and agency subscales together	Agency score: add items 2, 9, 10, and 12
SHS	[108]	A state, on-going goal-directed measure of hope	6 items on a 4-point scale	“At the present time, I am energetically pursuing my goals”	Add the pathways and agency subscales together. Total score: 6–48, with	Pathways score: add items 1, 3, and 5
			1 = definitely false 4 = definitely true			Agency score: add items 2, 4, and 6
HHI	[109]	Assesses overall hope levels	12 items on a 4-point scale 1 = strongly disagree 4 = strongly agree	“I have deep inner strength”	Total score 12 to 48	No
Pain Catastrophizing PCS	[110]	Individuals reflect on past painful experiences 0 = not at all	13 items on a 5-point scale	“I feel I can’t go on”	Total score 0–52 Three subscale scores	Sum items
						Rumination: 8, 9, 10, 11
			4 = all the time			Magnification: 6, 7, 13
						Helplessness: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 12
CSQ (catastrophizing subscale)	[111]	Cognitive strategies for dealing with pain	6 items on a 7-point scale 0 = never do 6 = always do that when in pain	“I feel I can’t stand it anymore”	Total score of 36	N/A

For all measures, a higher score indicates higher levels of the construct

HHI used with clinical patients, ASES used with arthritis and fibromyalgia patients, all others used with healthy and clinical populations

LOT-R Life Orientation Test-Revised, ASES Arthritis Self Efficacy Scale, PSEQ Pain Self-Efficacy Questionnaire, GSES General Self Efficacy Scale, ATHS Adult Trait Hope Scale, SHS State Hope Scale, HHI Herth Hope Index, PCS Pain Catastrophizing Scale, CSQ: Coping Strategies Questionnaire