Table 1.

Surgical Models of Heart Failure

Model Description	Advantages	Disadvantages
Ischemia/Infarction
Coronary Artery Ligation	• Simple method to create transmural MI • Clinically relevant, reproducible in targeted areas •Rapid onset of HF	• Invasive • High morbidity risk with surgical complications and arrythmias • Difficult to estimate Infarct Size
Coronary Artery Embolization	•Minimally invasive • High Incidence in Clinic • Ability to control ischemic response	• Inconsistent length and size of occlusions • Requires repeat catheterizations and interventions to achieve HF • High cost: equipment and personnel
Coronary Artery Narrowing	• Ability to create partial or gradual occlusion • Permits the study of chronic myocardial ischemia	• Invasive and high risk of myocardial injury from occluders/constrictors • Requires the use of technically complex procedure and flowmeters • Difficult to control degree and progress of stenosis
Ischemia/Reperfusion	• Highest rate of clinical occurrence • Minimally Invasive	•Lack of extensive experimental data • Technical difficulty and requires expensive equipment and personnel
Cryoinfarction	•Simple procedure and device use • Ability to control size and location of infarct	•Invasive • Inconsistency in HF progression • Infarcts typically not transmural
Tachycardia-Induced Model
Ventricular Induced Pacing Supraventricular Induced Pacing	• Relatively simple and generates predictable degrees of HF • Ability to produce right and left ventricular dysfunction • No impact on coronary vessels	• Reversible dysfunction after pacing cessation • Mechanisms of HF not similar to the human condition • Delayed onset of HF and requires intensive monitoring
Pressure Overload Model
Aortic Banding Pulmonary Artery Banding	• Low morbidity and ease of use • Ability to study the progression of RV or LV hypertrophy	• Difficult to achieve analogous HF as found in clinical situations • Only a small percentage develop signs of HF
Volume Overload Model
Arteriovenous Fistula Mitral Regurgitation Aortic Regurgitation Tricuspid Regurgitation	• Effective in evaluating diastolic HF • Adequate to study compensatory mechanisms of HF	• Requires a complicated surgical procedure • Delayed onset of HF • Does not represent the complete spectrum of HF