TABLE 2—
Stigma Prevalence, Effects on the Distribution of Life Chances, and Associated Health Outcomes
Review Studies Documenting Effects of Stigma |
||||||||
Stigmatized Status | Prevalence in General Population, % | Housinga | Employment/Income | Education/Academic Outcomes | Social Relationships | Psychological/Behavioralb | Health Carec | Health |
Mental illness | 32.4 (current)13; 46.4 (lifetime)14 | Link and Phelan,9 Hinshaw and Cicchetti15 | Link et al.,16 Corrigan and Penn,17 Link and Phelan18 | Link et al.16 | Hinshaw and Cicchetti,15 Link and Phelan18 | Pachankis,19 Livingston and Boyd,20 Hinshaw and Stier,21 Rüsch et al.22 | Hinshaw and Cicchetti,15 Corrigan et al.,23 Ross and Goldner24 | Mak et al.25 |
Minority sexual orientation | 3.526 | Coker et al.27 | Badgett28 | Hatzenbuehler,29 Meyer,30 Friedman et al.31 | Pachankis,19 Hatzenbuehler,29 | Coker et al.27 Cochran32 | Meyer,30 Cochran32 | |
Obesity | 33.833 | Puhl and Brownell34 | Puhl and Brownell,34 Puhl and Latner,35 Puhl and Heuer36 | Puhl and Latner,35 Puhl and Heuer,36 Pettit37 | Puhl and Brownell38 | Puhl and Brownell,34 Puhl and Heuer36 | Puhl and Latner,35 Puhl and Heuer36 | |
HIV/AIDS | 0.00339 | Leaver et al.40 | Herek41 | Herek41 | Herek,41 Crawford42 | Pachankis,19 Herek41 | Mawar et al.43 Mahajan et al.44 | Rabkin,45 Logie and Gadalla,46 |
Disability | 21.847 | Smeets et al.48 | Smeets et al.48 | Jacoby et al.,49 de Boer et al.50 | Smeets et al.,48 Beart et al.,51 Livneh et al.52 | MacLeod and Austin53 | Jacoby et al.49 | |
Minority race/ethnicity | Hispanic, 16.3; non-White, 27.654 | Massey and Denton,55 Williams and Collins56 | Williams57 | Steele,58 Zirkel59 | Williams and Collins56 | Smart Richman and Leary60 | Williams57 | Paradies,61 Williams et al.,62 Clark et al.63 |
Note. We included review articles that discussed more than 1 article in each domain.
Being denied housing as a result of discrimination or being overrepresented among the homeless population because of stigma.
Self-esteem, emotion regulation processes, and coping responses to stigma-related stressors.
Attitudes of health care providers, suboptimal treatment, or reduced likelihood of accessing prevention and intervention services.